Beyond Numbers: The Substantive Representation of Individuals of Immigrant- Origin by Immigrant-Origin MPs A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in the Faculty of Humanities 2019 R. Anthony Chambers School of Social Sciences Contents List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................................6 List of Appendix Tables ...................................................................................................................................8 List of Figures ................................................................................................................................................10 List of Abbreviations .....................................................................................................................................11 Declaration ....................................................................................................................................................13 Statement of Copyright.................................................................................................................................13 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................................14 Abstract .........................................................................................................................................................15 Chapter 1. Introduction................................................................................................................................16 Main Research Question & Project Overview ..........................................................................................17 Why the study of substantive representation of immigrant-origin individuals is both important and topical .......................................................................................................................................................19 The Immigrant-Origin Population of the UK .............................................................................................22 How large is the immigrant-origin population? ...................................................................................23 Descriptive & Substantive Representation ...............................................................................................30 The Wider Literature on Descriptive and Substantive Representation ....................................................30 Originality and Contribution .....................................................................................................................32 Methodology ............................................................................................................................................34 Different approaches to measuring substantive representation in extant literature ..........................34 Using parliamentary questions for written answer to quantify substantive representation ..............35 Immigrant-Origin Interests or Ethnic Minority Interests? ........................................................................36 Structure of the Dissertation ....................................................................................................................36 Chapter 2. The Representation of Politically Underrepresented Groups in Theoretical Literature ..........39 Defining Political Representation .............................................................................................................40 Parliamentary Representation and Wider British Society ........................................................................43 Why descriptive representatives might be more likely to provide substantive representation ..............44 Shared Experiences ..............................................................................................................................44 Group Consciousness and Linked Fate .................................................................................................45 Surrogate Representation ....................................................................................................................47 Why descriptive representatives might not necessarily be more likely to provide substantive representation ..........................................................................................................................................49 ‘Like’ will not always be best suited to represent ‘like’ ........................................................................49 Non-descriptive representatives might be just as willing to represent (and capable of representing) underrepresented groups ....................................................................................................................51 2 Levels of group consciousness can vary among individuals .................................................................53 When it comes to substantive representation, other factors may be more salient than shared personal traits and characteristics .......................................................................................................56 Chapter Summary .....................................................................................................................................59 Chapter 3. An Overview and Discussion of the Methods Used in This Study ............................................61 Parliamentary Questions for Written Answer ..........................................................................................62 Why use parliamentary questions for written answer when studying substantive representation? ..65 Where were parliamentary questions for written answer directed? ..................................................67 The Questions Used ..................................................................................................................................69 The Search Term Method .....................................................................................................................70 Coding the Questions ...............................................................................................................................71 How Questions Were Coded: Coding Criteria ..........................................................................................72 Types of questions that were considered to demonstrate substantive representation ......................72 Types of questions that were not considered to demonstrate substantive representation ...............80 Exploring the Types of Words and Language Used by MPs in Parliamentary Questions .........................83 Modelling Strategy ...................................................................................................................................87 Main Independent Variables ................................................................................................................87 Main Control Variables .........................................................................................................................89 Main Hypotheses ......................................................................................................................................90 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................91 Chapter 4. Determining the Interests of the UK’s Immigrant-Origin Population ......................................93 Do Immigrant-Origin Individuals have an ‘Agenda’? ................................................................................94 Assigning of Interests ................................................................................................................................97 How Interests are Determined in this Thesis............................................................................................98 The Data Used in this Chapter ..................................................................................................................99 Adjustments to the Datasets ............................................................................................................. 101 Differences and Similarities in Interests within Different Areas of Policy ............................................. 103 Health ................................................................................................................................................ 104 Discrimination ................................................................................................................................... 105 Crime and the Criminal Justice System ............................................................................................. 108 The Labour Market ............................................................................................................................ 116 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 120 Chapter 5. Evidence of Substantive Representation in Different Policy Areas: Health .......................... 122 Hypotheses ............................................................................................................................................ 123