A Feminist Critique of the Militarization of Knowledge Production on Terrorism Studies: A Scholar-Activist Counter-Narrative Account Rosalie D. Clarke A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Nottingham Trent University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2019 This work is the intellectual property of the author. You may copy up to 5% of this work for private study, or personal, non-commercial research. Any re-use of the information contained within this document should be fully referenced, quoting the author, title, university, degree level and pagination. Queries or requests for any other use, or if a more substantial copy is required, should be directed in the owner(s) of the Intellectual Property Rights. Abstract Given the post-2008 ‘evolution’ of the term ‘terrorist’ to incorporate more domestic threats, such as protesters/activists/dissidents, in the West (particularly with reference to the US and UK respectively), the author seeks to question the utility of this development for the purposes of reducing violent conflict. Consideration is given to the Minerva Initiative and the relationship between the security and scholarly community, towards the aim of the United States to manage future security challenges. It is suggested that the increasing militarization of knowledge production, coupled with the militarization of police and civic spaces, is in fact counter-productive to efforts to reduce such (domestic) violent conflict. Considering the recent context of post-2016, ‘post-truth’ events and the Trump Presidency, along with the ‘black propaganda’, ‘fake news’ and hybrid security threat of Russia; the author highlights significant areas of Cold War-esque concern raised from the analysis. In the ongoing Information War context, scholar-activists are needed more than ever. Furthermore, the author suggests an alternative theoretical and methodological approach, incorporating Critical (Feminist) Security scholarship, a radical approach to Peace Economics, and alternative critical (artistic) methods. This ultimately resulted in the author choosing an ‘immersive’, ‘scrap-booking’ style for the format of the thesis. The author suggests that critical (feminist) security scholars are best placed to utilise Peace Economics, engaging empathy via concepts such as Sylvester’s (1994) ‘empathetic cooperation’; developed further by ‘CS’ scholars such as Sjoberg (2006, 48), who suggest it can be understood as a ‘feminist security ethic’. This approach should improve the prospects for a reduction in political violence (often referred to as ‘terrorism’). It is suggested the hermeneutic cycle, reflexivity and autobiographical counter-narrative methodological approach, enables the scholar-activist to negotiate a path through the current political and intellectual landscape in academia, whilst also remaining true to activist ideals and aims. In seeking solutions to the problems of today, the author suggests we look to the past…and the Presidency, for ‘A (feminist) ‘Strategy of Peace’ (Economics)’. 1 Acknowledgements This resistant, interdisciplinary, and challenging work could not have been accomplished without the support of a great many people. The common saying, ‘It takes a village’, feels rather apt when discussing the creation and submission of such a large body of work and that feeling of completing and sending it out into the world, to be appreciated and judged. Though the gestation period exceeded even that of a Frilled Shark, the five (and some change…) years of carrying and fighting for the work flew by. This would not have been the case without the support (i.e. financial, emotional) of my parents, my sisters and extended family – at various times and in many ways. I was also supported and guided greatly by other PhD students, and scholars, particularly those in the feminist community, in person, online and at various conference events. The two summer schools I attended were invaluable, as was the access to a diverse community of scholars and students at such events. Both my literature review and my methodology were created as a direct result of the support and knowledge gained through those challenging experiences, and as such the thesis was given opportunities to survive. Such support cannot be understated, especially when one is a ‘self-funded’ (or more accurately, funded by the sacrifices and support of family) student. Thanks also to academics at my host institution (NTU), particularly Chris Farrands, Roy Smith, Imad El- Anis, Matt Henn and Jon Gorry, for their guidance and support – especially during challenging periods. The following scholars deserve special mention for their invaluable support, trouble-shooting and approachability, and dare I say friendship – when it was most needed: Laura Sjoberg, Annick Wibben, Laura Shepherd, Jacqui True, Cai Wilkinson, Cynthia Enloe. I am also grateful to some of these scholars, as well as Caron Gentry and Saara Sä rmä , for encouraging my work in support of the online ‘Feminist Theory and Gender Studies ISA group’; which resulted in my voluntary work as a social media admin for the group during some of my time working on the PhD. As discussed in this work and elsewhere, it is important to acknowledge the great need for mentorship and opportunities for ECRs and PhD students, particularly women and those minority-identifying in the academic community. I was very grateful for any acknowledgement and support I received due to the awareness of this need in the feminist scholarly community; particularly as I struggled with and resisted some of the practices and ideas shared in the scholarship. As Cynthia Enloe has suggested in interviews and public lectures, you should never be the most feminist person you know; for me this suggests we should all embrace the opportunities for learning and development, even 2 regarding our most deeply held and felt beliefs. I was lucky to have such an opportunity with this project, and I was encouraged by the work and words of Annick Wibben and Laura Sjoberg in enabling some of the risks I took in creating the theoretical and methodological framework. In acknowledging the necessity and power of the Hermeneutic approach underpinning the methodological framework of this work, I think it would be appropriate to finish the project with the following from theological scripture: ‘When pride comes, then comes shame, but with humility comes wisdom’ (found in Proverbs 11:2). This guidance has meaning for me, in the sense that whilst the feminist approach and cause in IR may have had a ‘lowly’ position, it also supports a greater humility in the pursuit and sharing of knowledge; our vulnerability is perhaps one of our greatest assets, it should be embraced. Dedicated to Halimah Ahmed, the NTU student and friend I once knew. November 2017 was the 10th Anniversary of her untimely death; we met in an IR class and shared an idealism and activist interest. Halimah’s work is continued by her family with the ‘Halimah Trust’, ‘The Halimah School of Excellence’ (for orphan and needy girls), and the soon to open ‘Halimah College’ in Wazirabad, Pakistan. The work of the Trust also extends to the ‘Refugee Crisis’ (Syria), ‘Emergency Aid’ (South Sudan), and supporting women in crisis - more generally - due to war and poverty (also in the UK). 3 Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. 2 Ch. 1: Introduction .................................................................................................................. 9 Research Question(s) and Aim(s) ........................................................................................ 12 Context and the Historical Narrative .................................................................................... 13 Camelot Project .................................................................................................................... 14 Minerva Initiative ................................................................................................................. 15 Origins/History ..................................................................................................................... 16 Why Should We Be Concerned? ...................................................................................... 17 Chapter Outline .................................................................................................................... 18 Terrorism (Literature Review) ............................................................................................ 27 Terrorism Research .......................................................................................................... 27 The Definitional Debate ................................................................................................... 30 Identity and the ‘Other’? .................................................................................................. 33 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 35 A ‘Critical’ Approach to Terrorism Study? ......................................................................... 37 Critical Terrorism and Critical Military Studies – Positioning the Work ............................ 39 CTS - Definition ..................................................................................................................