Mangroves for the Future National Strategy and Action Plan An Ecosystem-Based Integrated Coastal Management in Sri Lanka CONTENTS Mangroves for the Future National Strategy and Action Plan An Ecosystem-Based Integrated Coastal Management in Sri Lanka CONTENTS Publshed by: IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), Sri Lanka Office for the National Steering Committee of the Mangroves for the Future Programme, Sri Lanka, Copyrght: © 2009 IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non - commercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder. Research, synthess and complaton: Dr J I Samarakoon Photographs: Unless otherwise indicated, all still photographs are by Dr J I Samarakoon Ctaton: Sri Lanka National Strategy and Action Plan (2009) Mangroves for the Future Programme, IUCN Sri Lanka Country Office, Colombo. xxxii + 219pp. ISBN: 978 - 955 - 8177 - 96 - 9 Cover Photograph: A hive of activity near the Fisheries Harbour in Tangalle; Ranjith Mahindapala Produced by: IUCN Sri Lanka Office Desgned and layout by: K. Amila Tharanga Prnted by: Karunaratne & Sons Ltd. 67, UDA Industrial Estate, Katuwana Road, Homagama. Avalable from: IUCN Sri Lanka Country Office, 53, Horton Place, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka. CONTENTS CONTENTS ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................. v FOREWORD............................................................................ x EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................... x 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................. 1 1.1 Coastal Ecosystems Focus ................................................. 1 1.2 Coastal Ecosystems in Sri Lanka ......................................4 1.3 How to Read The NSAP ................................................ 13 1.3.1 Structure of the Report ..............................................14 1.4 Planning the NSAP – Starting Point .............................. 15 1.5 The Tragedy of the Commons .......................................16 1.6 The Mangroves for the Future Programme (MFF) – An Opportunity ..........................................................18 1.7 Integration with International Processes ........................ 20 1.8 Terminology – a Clarification ........................................ 20 1.9 Coastal Ecosystems: Bio-physical Reality and Need for Ecosystem-based ICM ..................................................... 21 1.9.1 Evolution of Estuaries, Lagoons and Deltas ..............24 1.9.2 A Micro-tidal regime ..................................................24 1.9.3 A Narrow Continental Shelf .....................................25 1.9.4 Geological Base and Geomorphology (Swan, 1983; Cooray 1982) .........................................27 1.9.5 Impact of Technology ................................................27 1.9.6 Coastal Processes ........................................................29 1.10 The Developmental Setting ............................................34 1.10.1 Development History and Poverty............................36 1.11 Planning Principles ......................................................... 37 1.12 Management of Change in Ecosystems ........................... 37 1.13 Causal Model Analysis of Coastal Ecosystems ............... 39 1.14 Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) is Development ................................................................... 39 1.15 Natural Hazards as Stimuli for Improved ICM .............. 43 1.15.1 The Great Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004: An Opportunity for Improved ICM ...............................43 1.16 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the Tsunami 2004: a Foundation for MFF & NSAP ........................... 43 1.17 An Asian Perspective on Ecosystem-based ICM ............ 44 CONTENTS 1.18 Socio-ecological Systems (SES): The Human Face of Coastal Ecosystems ......................................................... 45 1.19 Adapting to Future Uncertainty ..................................... 46 1.20 Issues in Sustainable Management of Socio-ecological Systems............................................................................ 46 1.21 The National Strategy and Action Plan (NSAP) ............ 47 1.22 Towards 2030: MFF NSAP ............................................ 48 2. COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS – EXISTING SITUATION AND TRENDS .................................................. 49 2.1 Preamble ......................................................................... 49 2.2 Methodology: Information on Ecosystem Trends ......... 53 2.3 Coastal Ecosystems – Definition, Regional Diversity, and Use Patterns ............................................................. 54 2.3.1 Definition ................................................................... 55 2.3.2 Structure and Functioning of the Seven Coastal Ecosystems ....................................................58 2.3.3 Regional Diversity – The Coasts of the Provincial Councils ..................................................................... 67 2.3.4 Distribution and Extents of Coastal Ecosystems .......80 2.3.5 Coastal Ecosystems – Size Matters! ............................81 2.3.6 Coastal Habitats: The Need to Reform Perceptions..82 2.4 Ecosystem - Catchment Relations: Defining the Wider Environment ................................................................... 88 2.5 Multiple Uses and Development Trends of Coastal Ecosystems ..................................................................... 89 2.5.1 Coastal Fisheries ........................................................93 2.5.2 Special Area Management ........................................ 105 3.5.3 Agriculture and Livestock ........................................ 110 2.5.4 Industrial Development ........................................... 115 2.5.5 Coastal Tourism Development ................................ 118 2.5.6 Urbanization and Housing Development ................ 120 2.5.7 Brackish Water and Shrimp Aquaculture ................ 121 2.5.8 Mineral Mining ........................................................ 125 2.5.9 Power and Energy .................................................... 128 2.5.10 Anchorages, Fishery Harbours and Ports ............... 128 2.6 Coastal Ecosystems and Natural Hazards: Vulnerability, Exposure and Resilience ........................ 129 2.6.1 Post-tsunami livelihood support .............................. 133 2.6.2 Tsunami-2004 & Post-tsunami Trends .................... 133 v CONTENTS 2.6.3 Interpretation of Impacts on Coastal Ecosystems and Lessons ........................................... 134 2.7 Societal Dependence on Coastal Ecosystems and Resources: Do Traditional Coastal Communities Exist ? ..................................................... 134 2.7.1 “Traditional” Coastal Populations ........................... 137 2.7.2 Non-traditional Coastal Populations ....................... 139 2.7.3 Open Access Resources and Common Property Resources ................................................................. 140 2.7.4 Inferences ................................................................. 141 2.8 Ecosystem Change – Problem of Seeing and Understanding .............................................................. 141 2.9 Global Change and Sea Level Rise ................................ 146 2.10 Problems to be Addressed in the NSAP ....................... 147 2.11 Coastal Ecosystem Change Trends - Synthesis ............. 148 2.12 Future Research ............................................................ 151 3. THE NATIONAL STRATEGIC ACTION PLAN (NSAP) .......................................................................... 153 3.1 The Structure of the National Strategic Action Plan (NSAP) ..................................................... 153 3.2 Policies .......................................................................... 153 3.3 Strategic Action Plan (SAP) .......................................... 156 3.4 Relationship between Planned Development and Coastal Ecosystems ....................................................... 167 3.4.1 Some Planning Questions and Answers................... 168 3.4.2 Validation ................................................................. 169 3.5 Development Opportunities ......................................... 169 3.5.1 Ecosystem Restoration & Rehabilitation................. 171 3.6 Background to the SAP ................................................ 172 3.6.1 National Studies ....................................................... 176 3.6.2 National Workshop – 19 November 2007 ............... 177 3.7 Implementation ............................................................. 177 3.7.1 Participation ............................................................. 178 3.8 Monitoring & Evaluation Strategy: Learning and Adapting ................................................. 179 3.9 Compatibility with CZMP 2004 ................................ 182 3.10 Conclusion .................................................................... 183 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................. 187 ANNEXES ............................................................................. 205 v CONTENTSABBREVIATIONS ABBREVIATIONS ADB Asian Development