TABLES AND FIGURES Figure 1: basic transcription of “Nuthin’ but a G Thang” (Dr. Dre ft. Snoop Dogg, 1992). Audio Example 1: “Nuthin’ but a G Thang” (Dr. Dre ft. Snoop Dogg, 1992). 1 Table 1a: musical parameters analyzed in this corpus study. Musical Parameters I: Tempo ● tempo (bpm) II: Texture / Orchestration ● explicit beat layer (instrument(s) occupying this layer) ● functional bass layer (instrument(s) occupying this layer) ● harmonic filler layer (instrument(s) occupying this layer) ● melodic layer (instrument(s) occupying this layer) ● effects layer (instrument(s) occupying this layer) III: Pitch Collection ● tonal center (“home key”) ● pitch collection (scale / mode / chromatic / none) ● length of harmonic progression (measures) ● presence of identifiable harmonic progression ● number of unique harmonies ● transcription of harmonic progression IV: Form ● hook type: chorus, extended refrain, refrain, or none ● presence of intro ● presence of outro ● presence of fade-out ● choruses are all the same length ● chorus length (in measures) ● verses are all the same length ● number of distinct verses ● length range of verses (in measures) V: Lyrics / Vocals ● lyric topic(s) ● presence of profanity ● presence of singing ● presence of sampled singing ● vocal timbre: smooth (S) or gravelly (G) ● vocal tessitura: low (L), medium (M), or high (H) ● consonant articulation: dull (D) or pointed (P) ● vocal rhythm: flexible (F) or rigid (R) Units and additional information shown in parentheses. Many of the parameters, when analyzed, receive a “yes” or “no” value. 2 Table 1b: production parameters analyzed in this corpus study. Production Parameters VI: Component Analysis / Production Effects / Stereo Imaging ● instrument list ● panning position (L/R) ● effects list VII: Loudness / Compression / Phase Coherence ● loudness (LUFS - loudness units relative to full scale) ● subjective dynamic range reduction: (0 = transparent – 5 = highly compressed) ● dynamic range compression (DRC meter: scale of -1.5–7.5) ● phase coherence (scale of -1–1) VIII: Vocal Doubling and Backing Vocals ● vocal doubling: verse (number of layers) ● vocal doubling: chorus (number of layers) ● backing vocals: verse (number of layers) ● backing vocals: chorus (number of layers) Units and additional information shown in parentheses. Many of the parameters receive a “yes” or “no” value. 3 Figure 2: drum part for “Nuthin’ but a G Thang”. Tempo was measured for each song by using a tactus which followed the basic quarter note (exemplified by the basic kick-snare backbeat pattern). 4 Figure 3: textural layers in “Nuthin’ but a G Thang” using Moore’s terminology (2012). 5 Figure 4: textural layers in “The Choice is Yours” (Black Sheep, 1990). The upright bass part which occupies the functional bass layer could also be heard as serving both the functional bass and harmonic filler layers, due to its compound melody. Audio Example 2: “The Choice is Yours” (Black Sheep, 1990). 6 ● Refrain: “Follow the Leader” (Eric B. and Rakim, 1988) Audio example 3 Hurry hurry step right up and keep following the leader ● Extended Refrain: “Jump Around” (House of Pain, 1991) Audio example 4 So get out your seat and jump around! Jump around! Jump around! Jump around! Jump up, jump up and get down! Jump! Jump! Jump! Jump! ● Chorus: “Shook Ones Pt. II” (Mobb Deep, 1995) Audio example 5 Son, they shook Cause ain't no such things as halfway crooks Scared to death, scared to look, they shook Cause ain't no such things as halfway crooks Scared to death, scared to look Living the live that of diamonds and guns There's numerous ways you can choose to earn funds Some get shot, locked down and turn nuns Cowardly hearts and straight up shook ones, shook ones He ain't a crook son, he just a shook one Figure 5: examples of the three hook types used to classify the corpus: refrain, extended refrain, and chorus. Songs could also be categorized as “none of the above”. Each hook type example here has differing lyrical content. The lyrics excerpted from “Follow the Leader” conclude each verse. The lyrics excerpted from “Jump Around” show the verse blending into the extended refrain. The lyrics excerpted from “Shook Ones Pt. II” are a standalone chorus. 7 Table 2: formal transcription of “Nuthin’ but a G Thang”. Formal transcription: 4bt-8vs-4ch-12vs-4ch-12vs-4ch-4bt-12vs-16vs-4ch-4bt hook type: chorus, extended refrain, refrain, or none chorus presence of intro N presence of outro N presence of fade-out N choruses are all the same length Y chorus length (measures) 4 verses are all the same length N number of distinct verses 5 length range of verses (measures) 8–16 The transcription is converted into the formal data seen below on the chart. The transcription shorthand follows the naming convention: vs=verse, ch=chorus, ref=refrain, bt=beat (any material not classified as verse, chorus, or refrain). Numerical values in the formal plan represent number of measures counted for each section type. 8 Table 3: pitch collection data for “Nuthin but a G Thang”. Pitch Collection tonal center (“home key”) B pitch collection (scale / mode / chromatic / none) Aeolian length of harmonic progression (measures) 2 presence of identifiable harmonic progression Y number of unique harmonies 2 harmonic progression i – v – v – i This data is generated from the transcription shown in Figure 1. 9 Figure 6: transcription and harmonic analysis of “Bonita Applebum” (A Tribe Called Quest, 1990), revealing its classification as having a chromatic pitch collection. Audio Example 6: “Bonita Applebum” (A Tribe Called Quest, 1990). 10 Table 4: component analysis, stereo imaging, and production effects for “Straight Outta Compton” (N.W.A., 1988). Instrument List Panning/Stereo Position Production Effects List sample drums 0 hi-hat -50 reverb short guitar 35 orchestra hit -100, 100 sample saxophone 0 vocals 0 reverb long turntables 0 Audio Example 11: “Straight Outta Compton” (N.W.A., 1988). 11 Figure 7: tempo by year. Each dot represents a song in the corpus, and the line of best fit shows an overall downward trend in tempo. (F(1, 98) = 16.93, p < .00 R2 = .15. Tempo decreased 1.54 bpm each year.) 12 Figure 8: hook type presence per year. 13 Figure 9: sample usage per year, with curve of best fit (local polynomial regression fitting: no significant linear trend). 14 Figure 10a: percentage of songs using singing per year. (F(1, 98) = 14.49, p < .00 R2 = .13. Presence of singing increased 5.23% each year.) 15 Figure 10b: percentage of songs using profanity per year. (F(1, 98) = 6.25, p < .05 R2 = .06. Presence of profanity increased 3.95% each year.) 16 Figure 11a: overall track/song loudness per year, measured in Loudness Units Relative to Full Scale. (F(1, 98) = 32.71, p < .00 R2 = .25. Loudness increased .54 LUFS each year.) 17 Figure 11b: overall use of master bus compression per year, measured with the DRC Meter by PitchTech. (F(1, 98) = 27.44, p < .00 R2 = .22. Use of compression increased .28 units each year.) 18 Figure 12a: transcription and harmonic analysis of “Big Poppa” (Notorious B.I.G., 1995), revealing its predilection for functionally tonal harmonies. Audio Example 12: “Big Poppa” (Notorious B.I.G., 1995). 19 Figure 12b: transcription and harmonic analysis for “Gangsta’s Paradise” (Coolio, 1995), showing its directional tonality: pre-dominant, pre-dominant, dominant, tonic. Audio Example 13: “Gangsta’s Paradise” (Coolio, 1995). 20 Figure 12c: transcription and harmonic analysis of “I Wish” (Skee-Lo, 1995). Classified as having a chromatic pitch collection, the keyboard (doubled by brass sample in the chorus) part displays parsimonious voice leading, with two common tones connecting each harmony in the progression (excepting the return from fourth harmony back to the first, not shown here). Audio Example 14: “I Wish” (Skee-Lo, 1995). 21 Figure 13: tempo distribution across corpus. (Mean = 100.42 bpm. Standard Deviation = 11.49.) 22 Table 5: statistics for the 78 songs which exhibited a salient form of pitch collection. Pitch Collection Number of Pitch Collection Number of Pitch Collection Number of (very general) songs (general) songs (specific) songs Modal 66 minor modes 51 Dorian 17 Phrygian 5 Aeolian 25 harmonic minor 4 major modes 15 Lydian 1 Mixolydian 6 major 8 non-modal 12 major and minor 3 major and minor 3 other 9 Locrian 1 chromatic 5 other 3 23 Figure 14: vocal profiles, as defined by their unique combination of parameters. Profiles are abbreviated in the following order: timbre, tessitura, articulation, rhythm. Timbre: G=gravelly, S=smooth. Tessitura: L=low, M=medium, H=high Articulation: D=dull, P=pointed Rhythm: R=rigid, F=flexible 24 Table 6: six most common vocal profiles across the corpus, most of which include gravelly timbre and mid to high vocal tessitura. Vocal Profile Timbre Tessitura Articulation Rhythm GHDR gravelly high dull rigid GMDR gravelly medium dull rigid GMPmix gravelly medium pointed mix GHPmix gravelly high pointed mix GMDmix gravelly medium dull mix SMDR smooth medium dull rigid Audio Example 15: “Hey Ladies” (Beastie Boys, 1989). 25 Figure 15: dendrogram of the Daisy-generated groupings based on analysis data, showing for n=8 categories. See Figure_15.png 26 Table 7: grouping (n=4 categories) according to genre data from Acclaimed Music. Group 1 Group 2 I Get Around (Digital Underground ft. 2Pac) Gangsta’s Paradise (Coolio) Dear Mama (2Pac) Mind Playing Tricks On Me (Geto Boys) Tennessee (Arrested Development) Tha Crossroads (Bone Thugs n’ Harmony) Black Steel In the Hour of Chaos (Public Enemy) Mistadobalina (Del Tha Funky Homosapien) Bring the Noise (Public Enemy) Same Song (Digital Underground) Rebel Without A Pause (Public Enemy) Boyz N Tha Hood (Eazy E) Welcome to the Terrordome (Public Enemy) U Can’t Touch This (MC Hammer) Fight The Power (Public Enemy) Baby Got Back (Sir Mix A Lot) The Humpty Dance (Digital Underground) I Wish (Skee-Lo) Paul Revere (Beastie Boys) Wild Thing (Tone Loc) Fight for Your Right (Beastie Boys) Bust A Move (Young MC) No Sleep Till Brooklyn (Beastie Boys) Pop Goes the Weasel (3rd Bass) Hey Ladies (Beastie Boys) Top Billin’ (Audio Two) Shake Your Rump (Beastie Boys) The Choice Is Yours (Black Sheep) Dwyck (Gang Starr ft.