Castles of Northwest Greece From the early Byzantine Period to the eve of the First World War Allan Brooks Aetos Press Copyright © Allan Brooks 2013 First published 2013 by Aetos Press 36 Moor Lane, Huddersfield, HD8 0QS, UK All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission, in writing, of the publisher. Typeset in Times New Roman 11pt Maps and plans drawn by the author All photographs are by the author ISBN 978-0-9575846-0-0 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Aetos Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for third-party internet websites referenced in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on these websites is, or will remain, ac- curate or appropriate. www.aetospress.co.uk Contents List of Figures vii List of Maps xiv Preface xvii Practical Notes xix Introduction 1 1 Aetolia and Akarnania 16 Castle and town walls of Nafpaktos 18 Castle of Roumeli 44 Castle of the Morea 50 Mesolonghi 64 Anatoliko and Katochi 67 Angelokastro 69 Dragomestre and Astakos 72 Castle of Aetos 78 Castle of Barnakas 81 2 Preveza and Lefkas 88 The Fortification of Preveza 88 Pantokratoras Fort 94 Aktio Forts 99 Castle of Santa Maura 102 Castle of Grivas 117 Fort St. George, Plagia 122 Forts Constantine and Alexander 125 Nikopolis 127 v Contents 3 The Gulf of Ambracia 143 Castle of Rogoi 145 Koronisia 155 Ambrakos 156 Castle of Arta 157 Limnaia 167 Castle of Vonitsa 173 4 Epiros 191 Riniasa (Thomokastro) 193 Kiafas Castle 198 Parga 207 Anthousa 221 Margariti 229 Igoumenitsa and Pirgos Ragiou 233 Paramythia: Castle of Agios Donatos 238 Fortifications of Ioannina 244 Bizani Forts 264 Pente Pigadia 268 Summary 277 Chronology 281 Glossary 292 Bibliography 296 Index 303 vi Introduction The early history of the region There is evidence of human occupation in the area that now forms the northwest of Greece from the Neolithic period onwards. The earliest cit- ies were established by a succession of colonists. Mycenaean colonies were founded in the 14C BC notably at Ephyra near the mouth of the river Acherontas. In the 7C BC Elean colonies were established at Bouchetion, Baties and Elatria to the north of the Gulf of Ambracia and at Pandosia in the Acherontas valley.1 Corinthian colonies created at the same time included Ambracia, the location of modern Arta, and Anak- toria on the southern shore of the Ambracian Gulf. In the 5C BC the in- habitants of Corfu established a colony at Toroni to the north of Igoumenitsa, while at Nafpaktos on the Gulf of Corinth the Athenians planted a colony of Messenian exiles. The native tribes of Epiros were the Molossi who occupied the cen- tral area around modern Ioannina; the Thesproti who held the valleys of the Acherontas and its tributaries and whose name survives in modern Thesprotia; and the Chaones whose territory now lies in southern Alba- nia. Further south the tribes of Aetolia had created a federal state, or league, in the 4C BC as had the Akarnanians somewhat earlier. Epiros itself was first unified in the 4C BC by the Molossian king, Alexander. In the 3C under Pyrrhus its borders were greatly expanded and with the acquisition of Akarnania extended as far south as the Gulf of Corinth. However after the death of Pyrrhus’s successor, Alexander II, in 240 BC, Epiros began to fragment and Akarnania regained its independence. There followed a protracted period of conflict between Epiros and the Aetolians. At the beginning of the 2C BC Epiros became involved in the wars between Rome and Macedon. Eventually the tribes split into two factions with the Molossians supporting Macedon. The final Ro- man victory at the end of the Third Macedonian War led, in 167 BC, to 1 Introduction the sacking of seventy Molossian settlements in retribution. Epiros be- came part of the Roman province of Macedonia created after the defeat of a Macedonian uprising in 148 BC. Rome had defeated the Aetolians in 189 BC and Aetolia was thereafter a Roman client state. Akarnania also acknowledged the supremacy of Rome around this time. After the defeat of the Achaian League and the sack of Corinth in 146 BC the whole of Greece was divided into the two Roman provinces of Mace- donia and Achaia. Both the Aetolian and the Akarnanian Leagues con- tinued as political entities until 31 BC when, with the founding of Nikopolis by Octavian, their territories were forcibly de-populated to provide the first inhabitants of the new city. A separate province of Epiros with Nikopolis as its capital was cre- ated at the beginning of the 2C AD. At the end of the 3C the Emperor Diocletian reformed the borders to create Epiros Vetus in the south and Epiros Nova to the north. Epiros Vetus, old Epiros, included all of mod- ern northwest Greece as far south as the Acheloos River as well as the extreme south of modern Albania. New Epiros lay to the north and oc- cupied southern Illyria, the area now occupied by the greater part of modern Albania. In 330 Constantine dedicated his new capital of Con- stantinople on the Bosphorus and in 395 the Eastern Empire formally separated from the Western. Over the following centuries the eastern half became the Greek-speaking entity we now call the Byzantine Em- pire. The Balkans as a whole were subjected to devastation from suc- cessive waves of invaders from the 3C onwards. The Goths in the 3C were followed by the Huns in the 4C and the Vandals in the 5C. These invasions led in turn to a general re-fortification of the main cities of the Empire. The prime example in Epiros is the 5C circuit of Nikopolis probably constructed after the Vandal raids of 475. From the 6C on- wards the Balkans suffered repeated invasions by Slav tribes. Byzantine political control in most of Epiros was lost by the end of the 7C and not regained until the 9C in the reign of the Emperor Basil I. Further re- fortification may have occurred at this time. The Norman Invasion The Normans had been active in southern Europe as mercenaries since the latter part of the 10C. In the 11C, led by the Hauteville family, they carved out a kingdom for themselves in southern Italy ousting the By- zantines completely in 1071 with the fall of Bari after a three-year siege. From this power base Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemond 2 Introduction embarked on an ambitious but ultimately unsuccessful campaign to conquer Constantinople itself. In 1081 they crossed the Adriatic, seized a number of ports on the Illyrian coast and occupied Corfu. The follow- ing year Bohemond captured Ioannina and made major improvements to its fortifications, elements of which still survive. He advanced east into Thessaly but was defeated at Larissa in 1083. The Byzantines re- gained their lost territory and the Norman campaigns came to an abrupt end with Guiscard’s death in 1085. The Despotate of Epiros In 1204 the Byzantine Empire was dealt a devastating blow by the forces of the Fourth Crusade from which it only subsequently partially recovered. The combined Crusader armies of Franks and Venetians conquered and sacked Constantinople and proceeded to divide up the Empire between them. The Venetians’ agreement with the Crusaders had given them three eighths of the Empire, famously expressed as the fraction “one quarter and half of one quarter”. Epiros was part of this allotment but in practice the Venetians were interested only in its coastal strongholds and ports. In 1205 Michael Comnenus Doukas, an illegitimate member of the Byzantine imperial family, seized the terri- tory. In 1210 he reached an agreement with the Venetians to govern Epiros notionally on their behalf. The independent Byzantine state he created was eventually to become known as the Despotate of Epiros.2 Only two other fragments of the Empire remained under Byzantine con- trol. These were known as the Empire of Nicaea and the Empire of Tre- bizond and occupied small territories in Asia Minor. Michael and his successor on his death in 1215, his half-brother Theodore, pursued a policy of vigorous territorial expansion and by 1230 their new state encompassed Old and New Epiros, Aetolia, Akar- nania, Thessaly and much of Macedonia including the city of Thessalo- nica. Its capital was Arta, with Ioannina, much expanded by an influx of refugees from Constantinople, forming its second city. Theodore’s at- tempt to create a new Byzantine Empire brought him into conflict with the Empire of Nicaea but his grand plan to recover Constantinople came to a halt when he was defeated by the Bulgarians in 1230. Michael II, the exiled son of the first Michael Doukas, used the opportunity to re- turn to Arta and seize his inheritance. It was this Michael and his son, Nikephoros, who were jointly granted the title of Despot for the first time by the Nicaean Emperor John Vatatzes in 1253 during a brief 3 Aetolia and Akarnania Figure 1.2 Nafpaktos: The partially blocked up sea gate. point in the Turkish period the walls on the west quay were modified for heavy artillery by the insertion of low level gunports virtually at sea level. These are still visible although they are either partially blocked up or, as with the passage through the wall onto the concrete jetty project- ing into the Gulf, have been converted into gateways.