IDENTITY DELEGITIMIZATION AND ECO-ENTERPRISE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE PROCESS OF DISENROLLMENT IN NATIVE AMERICAN COMMUNITIES by Janice R. McRae A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Conflict Analysis and Resolution Committee ________________________________________ Chair of Committee ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ Graduate Program Coordinator _________________________________________ Director, Institute of Conflict Analysis and Resolution Spring Semester 2010 Date: ____________________________________ George Mason University Fairfax, VA Identity Delegitimization and Eco-Enterprise: A Comparative Study of the Process of Disenrollment in Native American Communities A dissertation completed in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University By Janice R. McRae Master of Arts The American University, 1986 Director: Katrina Korostelina, Professor Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution Spring Semester 2010 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Copyright © 2010 Janice R. McRae All rights reserved All trademarks, service marks, logos and company names mentioned in this work are the property of their respective owners. ii DEDICATION This is dedicated to my parents, Levester and Amanda McRae, without whom I could not have traveled this wonderful road. Thank you for instilling in me a courageous spirit, the endless possibilities of adventure, the love of nature, and the wonder of learning and discovery; it has certainly taken me down a less trodden life-path. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the rock steady support of the one who shares my life, Dr. Motee Persaud. I could not have done this without your confidence in me and your unfailing encouragement. I would like to acknowledge the support of my two brothers, J. Alexander Stone and Anthony L. McRae, who were my constant cheering section along with a host of wonderful friends and colleagues. I would also like to sincerely acknowledge appreciation for the support of my dissertation committee, Dr. Karina Korostelina, Dr. Dan Rothbart, Dr. John Peacock, and Dr. Susan Trencher. I would particularly like to thank Karina, my committee Chair, who gently guided me through every step of this work. I would also like to thank the enrolled and disenrolled members of the Descendants of Cherokee Freedmen, the Las Vegas Paiute, and the Pechanga Band of Luiseño Indians for their willingness to share their personal stories, as well as a host of other individuals who guided me along this path. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Tables…………………………………………………………………….vii List of Figures…………………………………………………………………...viii Abstract……………………………………………………………………...........ix Chapter 1 Introduction…………………………………………………….............1 1.1 Research Implications……………………………………………………...12 Chapter 2 Literature Review……………………………………………………..17 2.1 Part I –Historical, Cultural, Contemporary Economic and Identity Legitimacy Issues…………………………………………………………..18 2.2 Part II - Conceptual Framework -Theoretical Foundation for this Study………………………………………………………………………..33 Chapter 3 Historical Context……………………………………………………..46 3.1 Part I - Historical Context: Creation Stories and Other Relevant Background Information on The Pechanga Band of Luiseño Indians, the Las Vegas Paiute and the Cherokee Indians………….…………………….48 3.2 Part II - Historical Context: An Overview of Relevant American Governmental Policies and Their Impact on Native American Communities…………………………………………………………….….75 Chapter 4 Exploring Tribal Enrollment and Disenrollment……………………....97 4.1 Part I - Defining Enrollment and Inclusion as Reflected in the Pechanga, Paiute and Cherokee Communities………………………………………....97 4.2 Part II - Tribal Sovereignty and Disenrollment…………………………....114 4.3 Part III - Disenrollment and Exclusion as Reflected in the Pechanga, Paiute and Cherokee Communities……………………………………………….121 Chapter 5 Complexities of Identity Construction and Deconstruction: Defining Native Americans……………………………………………………142 Chapter 6 Eco-Enterprise as the "New Buffalo": Class III Gaming and Other Economic Endeavors of the Pechanga Band of Luiseño Indians, the Cherokee and the Las Vegas Paiute……………………..………………….….170 6.1 The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA) and other Relevant Legislation…………………………………………………………………178 Chapter 7 Modes of Inquiry (Research Methodology)…………………………..202 7.1 Overview and Introduction………………………………………………... 202 7.2 Sampling……………………………………………………………………204 v 7.3 Procedures of Research……………………………………………………..205 Chapter 8 Research Results……………………………………………………….212 8.1 General Overview of Findings……………………………………………...212 8.2 Overview and Clustering of Major Narrative Themes……………………...217 8.3 Deconstruction of Narrative Data Supporting Research Hypothesis……….224 Chapter 9 Conclusion…………………………………………………………..…238 9.1 Discussion…………………………………………………………………...240 9.2 Reconciliation and Healing…………………………………………….........252 9.3 Broader Implications………………………………………………………...260 Appendices……………………………………………………………………….. 265 A Interview Questions and Follow-Up Interview Questions………………....... 265 B Select Sections of the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act………………………. 266 C Indian Civil Rights Act………………………………………………………. 274 D 1902 Cherokee Freedmen Enrollment Notice………………………………... 276 E We Are Cherokee…………………………………………………………….. 277 F Recent Legal Action Taken by Disenrolled Members of the Pechanga Band...279 References…………………………………………………………………............281 Curriculum Vitae…………………………………………………………………..295 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 5.1 Some California Tribes That Have Engaged in Disenrollment……..……….158 6.1 Growth in Native American Gaming Revenues from 1998-2007…………...177 8.1 Frequency of Major Themes in Narratives…………………………………..215 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.1 Model of Hypothesis…………..………….………………………….…5 1.2 Comparative Overview of Tribal Disenrollment………………….……8 3.1 Comparative Overview of Historical Factors.........................................93 4.1 Comparison of Enrollment Criteria……..…………………………....111 4.2 Protest of Pechanga Disenrollment...…………………..……………..125 4.3 Protest at Las Vegas Paiute Smoke Shop.……………………………129 4.4 Cherokee Freedmen Descendants Protest………….………………....135 4.5 Cherokee Freedmen Descendants Protest at BIA……….…………....137 4.6 Comparative Summary of Disenrollment Actions…………………....138 5.1 A Humorous Look at Identity, Disenrollment and Tribal Gaming…...168 6.1 Overview of Cherokee Enterprises……………………………………181 6.2 Excerpt from Letter of Principal Chief Chad Smith…………..............182 6.3 Brief Overview of the Cherokee Nation Enterprises…………….…....182 6.4 Cherokee Casino Resort Hotel………..……………………………. ...183 6.5 Cherokee Casino Will Rogers Downs Racetrack………..…………....184 6.6 Cherokee Hills Golf Club…..………………………………………....185 6.7 Overview of Pechanga Economic Development……………………...187 6.8 The Pechanga Casino…………….………………………………….. .188 6.9 Pechanga Resort.…………………………………………………….. .189 6.10 Pechanga Journey Golf Course..........................……………………....190 6.11 Economic Enterprises of the Las Vegas Paiute……….…………….....191 6.12 Economic Enterprises of the Las Vegas Paiute Continued…………. ..192 6.13 Comparison of Major Economic Enterprises..………………………...193 6.14 Economic Enterprises Inputs and Outputs………………………….....195 8.1 Major Themes and Sub-Categorizations……….………………….…..214 8.2 Overview of Major Narrative Themes…….………………………......218 8.3 Clustering of Major Narrative Themes………………………………..221 8.4 Comparative Samples of Narrative Statements………………..…..226-30 8.5 Complexities of Narrative Statements………………………………...236 9.1 Highlights of Research Results and View of Hypothesis……………..242 9.2 Conflict Map of Tribal Disenrollment……………………………..….248 9.3 Economy of Identity Valuation and Legitimacy………….………..….262 viii ABSTRACT IDENTITY DELEGITIMIZATION AND ECO-ENTERPRISE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE PROCESS OF DISENROLLMENT IN NATIVE AMERICAN COMMUNITIES Janice R. McRae, Ph.D. George Mason University, 2010 Director: Dr. Karina Korostelina This dissertation describes the process of contemporary internal fragmentation resulting from tribal disenrollment (loss of citizenship) which has occurred in some Native American communities. Employing a comparative analysis approach, it explores three groups, the Cherokee, the Pechanga Band of Luiseño Indians and the Las Vegas Paiute, each having experienced recent economic gain through such enterprises as casino gaming. Through the analysis of narrative discourse, this research focuses on the disenrollment experience from the perspective of those who have been expelled. It provides a view of how this in-group conflict has resulted in social emotional distress as community decision-makers and leaders exercise their sovereign rights in determining who does and who does not belong. The study explores how such decisions act as constraints and, thereby, elicit efforts of resistance to the altering of salient identity markers – a process which is explored through the realm of modernization and economic transition. This research is intended to provide a glimpse of the impact of historical occurrences on contemporary decision-making impacting Native societies, individual identity and belonging. Finally, it attempts to explore avenues for community healing and reconciliation and provides a look at broader implications for the understanding