When Good Fences Make Bad Neighbors When Good Fences Boaz Atzili Make Bad Neighbors Fixed Borders, State Weakness, and International Conºict Since the end of World War II, the norm of ªxed borders—the proscription against foreign conquest and annexation of homeland territory—has gained prevalence in world poli- tics. But have ªxed borders made international conºict less frequent? Ob- servers might assume they have, given that territorial issues have historically been a major cause of war.1 However, among sociopolitically weak states (i.e., states that lack legitimate and effective governmental institutions), ªxed bor- ders can actually increase instability and conºict. Good fences can make bad neighbors. Until the late 1980s, the scholarly literature had devoted little attention to theories regarding the role of territory and borders in international relations.2 Since then, however, a growing body of work on this subject has emerged.3 One promising line of inquiry has focused on international norms concerning changes in borders. Mark Zacher and Tanisha Fazal, for example, have found that post–World War II cases of foreign conquest and annexation are a rarity and that the norm of ªxed borders has grown stronger over the years.4 The ef- Boaz Atzili is a Research Fellow in the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at the John F. Ken- nedy School of Government at Harvard University. The author thanks Ericka Albaugh, Michal Ben-Josef Hirsch, Patrick Boyd, Naomi Chazan, Thomas Christensen, Tanisha Fazal, Rachel Gisselquist, Arie Kacowicz, Sarah Lischer, Galia Press- Bar Nathan, Kenneth Oye, Roger Petersen, Jessica Piombo, Jeremy Pressman, Stephen Van Evera, and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on earlier drafts of this article. 1. John A. Vasquez, The War Puzzle (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 123–152; and Kalevi J. Holsti, Peace and War: Armed Conºicts and International Order, 1648–1989 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 306–311. 2. Noting this is John G. Ruggie, “Territoriality and Beyond: Problematizing Modernity in Interna- tional Relations,” International Organization, Vol. 47, No. 1 (Winter 1993), pp. 139–174. 3. See, for example, Friedrich Kratochwil, “Of Systems, Boundaries, and Territoriality: An Inquiry into the Formation of the State System,” World Politics, Vol. 39, No. 1 (October 1986), pp. 27–52; Brendan O’Leary, Ian S. Lustick, and Thomas Callaghy, eds., Right-sizing the State: The Politics of Moving Borders (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002); and Monica Duffy Toft, The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests, and the Indivisibility of Territory (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Uni- versity Press, 2003). 4. Mark W. Zacher, “The Territorial Integrity Norm: International Boundaries and the Use of Force,” International Organization, Vol. 55, No. 2 (Spring 2001), pp. 215–250; and Tanisha M. Fazal, “The Origins and Implications of the Territorial Sovereignty Norm,” paper presented at the annual convention of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, California, August 29– September 2, 2001. Rather than referring to this norm as “territorial integrity” or “territorial sover- eignty,” I use “ªxed borders” to distinguish between territorial and nonterritorial intervention. International Security, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Winter 2006/07), pp. 139–173 © 2007 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 139 International Security 31:3 140 fects of this norm on interstate relations, however, have yet to be analyzed—an omission this article aims to address. The article posits that, in many regions of the world, adherence to the norm of ªxed borders has led to international conºicts and growing instability by perpetuating and exacerbating state weakness. Three factors account for these negative effects. First, an international system of states with ªxed borders de- prives states of what were historically their greatest incentives to develop strong institutions: external threats to their territorial integrity and opportuni- ties for territorial expansion. Second, without such territorial threats, a coher- ent in-group identity and loyalty to the state are difªcult to establish. Third, without a mechanism through which weak states can be overtaken by stronger ones, the former may persist and perhaps become even weaker. Sociopolitically weak states in a world of ªxed borders may be more prone to internal conºict or even civil war because the incentives for excluding whole groups of citizens are greater, and because there is a higher likelihood of the emergence of an internal security dilemma. Such conºict may spill over as neighboring states feel obliged to come to the assistance of threatened coethnics within the weak state, and as refugee ºows create breeding grounds for insurgency and counterinsurgency, which in turn can lead to foreign inter- vention or even full-ºedged war. Neighbors might also view the state’s weak- ness as providing an opportunity to seek economic gains or political inºuence, including regime change.5 The argument that a norm that seeks to make the world a more peaceful place may instead cause it to become more conºict prone is both counter- intuitive and theoretically new. In addition, given that the phenomenon of weak and failed states is widespread, the argument potentially has important empirical implications. In 2006 the Failed States Index listed twenty-eight countries as being in a state of “alert” and seventy-eight more as in a state of “warning” with regard to their prospects for becoming failed states. These in- clude countries in Africa, the Middle East, Asia, the former Soviet Union, Latin America, and the Balkans.6 This article employs a single case study—the war in Congo, a country that was known as Zaire from 1971 to 1997 and since then as the Democratic 5. Although outside the scope of the article, it is useful to note that states in an international sys- tem of ªxed borders create more favorable conditions for global terrorist organizations to emerge (e.g., in Lebanon and Somalia). See Robert I. Rotberg, ed., “Failed States, Collapsed States, Weak States: Causes and Indicators,” in Rotberg, ed., State Failure and State Weakness in a Time of Terror (Cambridge, Mass.: World Peace Foundation, 2003), pp. 1–25. 6. Fund for Peace, “Failed States Index,” http://www.fundforpeace.org/programs/fsi/fsindex .php. See also Robert I. Rotberg, “The New Nature of Nation-State Failure,” Washington Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 3 (Summer 2002), p. 85. When Good Fences Make Bad Neighbors 141 Republic of Congo (DRC)—as a plausibility probe to determine the theory’s validity and applicability.7 The conºict produced tremendous carnage: as many as 3.8 million dead and many more injured or displaced. Both phases of the war (1996–97 and 1998–2002) involved domestic militias, a massive for- eign invasion, and shifting alliances—with Angola, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zimbabwe playing major roles. Even though the war has ofªcially ended, peace remains elusive. I selected the Congo war as my case study for two reasons. First, Congo is an extreme (or most likely) case, because as a country in Africa—a continent where the norm of ªxed borders is strongest and where the states are weakest—it presents high values on both the independent variable (the norm of ªxed borders) and the intervening variable (a very weak state). A probe into the dynamics relating ªxed borders to state weakness and to international conºict should thus offer clear, discernable results.8 Second, the Congo conºict is multifaceted; that is, many observation points can be generated from what is ostensibly a single case. Because this study is an initial probe into a newly identiªed causal mechanism, however, and because it involves only one case, the ability to generalize from its ªndings should not be exaggerated. The ªrst section of the article deªnes the norm of ªxed borders and dis- cusses its development and growing inºuence. The second section explicates the effects of this norm on the strength or weakness of states. The third section examines the effects of the combination of state weakness and the norm of ªxed borders on relations between neighboring countries. The fourth section considers the case of the war in Congo as a preliminary probe of the plausibil- ity of the article’s theoretical model. The article concludes with suggestions for future research. The Norm of Fixed Borders State borders are social constructs. Different international systems have histor- ically maintained different types of international borders. This section deªnes and analyzes the inºuence of one such construct: the international norm of 7. I use “Congo” when referring to the country in general, and Zaire and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) when it was ofªcially termed so. Plausibility probes are “preliminary studies on rel- atively untested theories and hypotheses to determine whether more intensive and laborious test- ing is warranted.” See Alexander L. George and Andrew Bennett, Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2005), pp. 75–76. 8. On the justiªcation and logic of using an extreme case, see ibid., pp. 120–123. For an example of a study that uses a similar approach, see Stephen Van Evera, “The Cult of the Offensive and the Origins of the First World War,” International Security, Vol. 9, No. 1 (Summer 1984), pp. 58–107. International Security 31:3 142 ªxed borders,9 or the notion that state