Chinese, Hong Kong Chinese, Hongkonger? The Construction of National Identity in light of the Anti-Moral and National Education Movement and the Umbrella Movement in Post-1997 Hong Kong A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2020 Chung Yan Priscilla Kam Department of Sociology School of Social Sciences List of Contents List of Tables 6 Abstract 7 Declaration 8 Copyright Statement 9 Acknowledgements 10 Chapter 1. Introduction 11 1.1. Introduction 11 1.2. The Main Arguments and Significance of this Thesis 12 1.3. A Historical Account of Hong Kong Identity 18 1.4. Significance of Scholarism, the Anti-MNE Movement and the Umbrella Movement 26 1.4.1. Significance of Scholarism 26 1.4.2. Significance of the Anti-MNE Movement 30 1.4.3. Significance of the Umbrella Movement 32 1.5. Methodological Approach 36 1.6. Clarifications of Terminology 38 1.7. Structure of the Thesis 38 1.8. Conclusion 42 Chapter 2. Literature Review: Theories of National Belonging in Hong Kong Context 43 2.1. Introduction 43 2.2. National Identity 43 2.2.1. The Emotional and Cognitive Components of National Identity 45 2.2.2. National Identity as a Social Identity 50 2 2.3. Ethnic and Civic National Identity 55 2.4. The Hong Kong Ethos 59 2.5. Conclusion 63 Chapter 3. Methodology 66 3.1. Introduction 66 3.2. Qualitative Study 66 3.3. Data Collection 68 3.3.1. Research Participants 69 3.3.2. Semi-structured Individual Interviews 73 3.3.3. Focus Groups 74 3.4. Data Analysis: Thematic Analysis 75 3.4.1. Familiarise with Data 76 3.4.2. Generate Codes 77 3.4.3. Develop and Refine Themes 80 3.4.4. Issues regarding Translation 82 3.5. Ethical Issues 85 3.5.1. Reflexivity 86 3.5.2. Doing Fieldwork as an ‘Insider’ 87 3.5.3. Complexities and Dynamics of Insider/Outsider and Researcher Identities 89 3.5.4. Co-existence of Insider/Outsider Positions 90 3.5.5. Costs and Benefits of Insiderness and Outsiderness 92 3.6. Conclusion 95 Chapter 4. Development of Identity Claims in Post-1997 Hong Kong 97 4.1. Introduction 97 4.2. Interpretations and Justifications of National Identity Claims 99 4.2.1. Exclusive Hongkonger Identity 101 3 4.2.2. Chinese Identity 104 4.2.3. Hongkonger in China 112 4.2.4. Chinese in Hong Kong 114 4.3. The Generational Conceptions of National Identity 115 4.4. Narratives of National Identity Development 125 4.5. Critical Events of National Identity Development 138 4.5.1. The Transfer of Sovereignty in 1997 138 4.5.2. The Sichuan Earthquake and Beijing Olympics in 2008 141 4.5.3. The Annual June 4th Vigil 143 4.5.4. The Causeway Bay Bookseller Disappearance in 2015 148 4.6. Conclusion 151 Chapter 5. Cognitive Markers of Hong Kong Identity 153 5.1. Introduction 153 5.2. Cultural Markers 154 5.2.1. Language 156 5.2.2. Cultural Practices 166 5.3. Civic Markers 176 5.3.1. the Will to Commit 176 5.3.2. Civic Values 186 5.4. Ethnic Markers 197 5.5. Conclusion 204 Chapter 6. Emotions in Hong Kong Social Movements and National Identity 206 6.1. Introduction 206 6.2. Fear 208 6.3. Anger 219 6.4. Guilt and Shame 231 6.5. Feeling of Powerlessness 235 4 6.6. Love of China 239 6.7. Emotions of Belonging 244 6.7.1. Love of Hong Kong 244 6.7.2. Sense of Belonging 247 6.7.3. Pride 250 6.8. Hope 254 6.9. Conclusion 267 Chapter 7. Conclusion 268 7.1. Introduction 268 7.2. The Analytical and Methodological Approaches of the Study 269 7.3. Findings of the Study 271 7.4. Prospects for Future Research 279 7.5. Conclusion 283 Bibliography 284 Appendix A: Interview guide for individual and focus group interviews 301 Final Word Count: 76,764 5 List of Tables Table 3.1. Demographic profile of participants in each focus group 74 Table 3.2. Example of semantic codes 78 Table 3.3. Example of latent codes 79 Table 3.4. Example of coding for patterns 80 6 Abstract This thesis explores the formation of Hong Kong identity in post-1997 Hong Kong through the 2012 Anti-Moral and National Education (MNE) Movement and the 2014 Umbrella Movement, and a youthful movement organisation influential within these social movements known as ‘Scholarism’. In the aftermath of these two social movements, the rise of Hong Kong identity vis-a-vis Chinese national identity has become particularly salient in post-1997 Hong Kong. The rise of Hong Kong identity prompts three key research questions for this thesis: How do the conceptions of national identity develop variously over time through three political generations? What are the specific cognitive markers of Hong Kong identity in post-1997 Hong Kong? How significant is emotion in characterising the emergence of Hong Kong national identity and social movements? Addressing these questions, and taking a bottom-up approach, this thesis is interested in self-claimed Hong Kong national identities, the meanings attached to and reasons for these identity claims, how they interplay with different identity claims, and their evolution over time. The findings of the thesis challenge the previous characterisation of Hong Kong identity as politically apathetic and market- oriented. The thesis is based upon 30 semi-structured qualitative individual and four focus group interviews with social movement activists and participants born in three cohorts, ‘post- 1970’, ‘post-1980’ and ‘post-1990’, who were associated with the 2012 Anti-MNE Movement and/or the 2014 Umbrella Movement, and/or the movement organisation ‘Scholarism’. The key findings reveal that an exclusive Hong Kong identity and a desertion of Chinese identity is emerging. In particular, this exclusive Hong Kong identity is characterised with its salient cultural and civic markers. Previous studies showed that people in Hong Kong generally embraced an ‘ethno-cultural’ China but rejected a political China. However, this thesis finds that the exclusive Hong Kong identity claim contests the concept of Chinese nationalism based on race and ethnicity. Since 1997, a national identity shift has been occurring among all three generations, in which the post-1990 are especially inclined to see Hong Kong and China as mutually exclusive entities by claiming an exclusive Hong Kong identity. 7 Declaration No portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning. 8 Copyright Statement i. The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and s/he has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes. ii. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form part of any such copies made. iii. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trademarks and other intellectual property (the “Intellectual Property”) and any reproductions of copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions. iv. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/DocuInfo.aspx?DocID=24420), in any relevant Thesis restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Library’s regulations (see http://www.library.manchester.ac.uk/about/regulations/) and in The University’s policy on Presentation of Theses 9 Acknowledgements Throughout my PhD, I tasted bitterness (the death of my dad) and sweetness (the birth of my son) of life. At this point, I am extremely proud and pleased to thank the many people, without whom this research would not have been possible. I am eternally grateful to God, who deserves the greatest glory, who gives me strength and hope when there appears no light. I am particularly indebted to my supervisors, Peter McMylor and Nicholas Thoburn. Peter’s positive and encouraging remarks reassured me of the significance of my thesis. Nick’s patience and constructive feedback demonstrated great dedication to this supervisory relationship. I am truly blessed by their mentorships and friendships. My special thanks goes to my research participants, who contributed to this thesis to a great extent, by sharing with me their ideas and emotions on such a personal topic and in such a sensitive time. Thank you, Mary Crump, Janet King and Karl Pearson for proofreading my work. Thank you, Union Hall Evangelical Church and Swavesey Bethel Baptist Church for your constant prayers and support. Thank you, Chan Kam-wah, Leung Lai -ching, Chan Yuk-chung, Cheng Yuk-tin, Chu Wai-chi, Simin Fadaee, my PhD colleagues, BASW 2008, friends from St.