© iStockphoto.com/peterhowell PHOTO PHOTO CREDIT: The Reasonably Certain Ethics of a Minority Report By James Juo, Esquire he film Minority Report (2002), directed by Steven Spielberg and starring Tom Cruise, posits a legal system where a “Precrime” department preemptively arrests Tpeople for homicides before they happen, based on reports generated from a trio of precognitives, or precogs—people who literally see the future. If a lawyer were to have precogs in his or her however, require that a lawyer shall reveal such employ, what issues of legal ethics would be raised information to prevent the death of another from having such foreknowledge? Would a lawyer in person. See, e.g. , Rule 4-1.6 of the Florida Rules of that position have an obligation to disclose a client’s Professional Conduct. confidence to prevent the death of another person? The comments to Model Rule 1.6 state that harm The Model Rules of Professional is “reasonably certain” to occur if it will be suffered Responsibility imminently or if there is a present and substantial Rule 1.6(b) of the Model Rules of Professional threat that a person will suffer such harm at a later Responsibility, states that a lawyer “may reveal date if the lawyer fails to take action necessary information relating to the representation of a to eliminate the threat. “The client can, of course, client to the extent the lawyer reasonably believes prevent such disclosure by refraining from the necessary: (1) to prevent reasonably certain wrongful conduct.” Id. Some courts also have found death or substantial bodily harm;…” Some states, that lawyers are permitted to disclose verbal threats ◆ ◆ 12 The Bencher November/December 2013 www.innsofcourt.org by a client against other persons in order to prevent The three reports were in effect “minority reports” death or bodily harm. See, e.g. , State v. Hanse n, 862 based on the different “time-paths” created as P.2d 117 (Wash. 1993) (finding no ethical violation Anderton learned of each prediction. by a lawyer telling a judge that a prospective client had threatened to kill the judge); United States v. Minority Report —the Movie Alexander , 287 F.3d 811 (9th Cir. 2002) (finding that The film version kept the basic notion of the a client’s threats to kill several people were not precogs predicting Anderton will kill a man whose protected attorney-client communications because name he does not know, but changed other aspects they were not made in order to obtain legal advice, of the story. and would be subject to the crime-fraud exception). The precog predictions in the film are like flashes of But how would Model Rule 1.6(b) apply in a world dream imagery, rather than having hard explana- where, instead of mere verbal threats by a client tory details as the predictions in the original who may just be venting anger or blowing off story. The images in the film version have to be steam, a lawyer is given a precog report predicting deconstructed and deciphered for visual clues in that his or her client will cause someone’s death? order to determine where the crime will take place. This is illustrated in an early scene in the film where Minority Report —the Short Story the precogs foresee a cuckolded husband stabbing was originally a 1956 short story Minority Report his wife and her lover to death after discovering by Philip K. Dick in which the protagonist John them together. With the precog’s “report” consisting Anderton (who heads the Precrime program) of fleeting images associated with the names of the receives a report that he will murder a man named victim and the perpetrator, Anderton sifts through Leopold Kaplan—a man who Anderton had never the precogs’ visions to deduce the location of the heard of. The prediction causes Anderton to flee, and future crime. A police team is then dispatched to to vow that he will not harm Kaplan. Anderton later prevent the killings and make an arrest. learns of the existence of a “minority report” that predicted no murder but which was overridden by The precogs in the film can predict only intentional the contrary predictions of the other two precogs. killings. There is less advance notice for crimes of Kaplan turns out to be a retired military general passion (such as the one that was to be committed plotting to disband the police and its Precrime by the jealous husband) than for planned murders. system, who will use the discovery of Anderton’s The crime is prevented from happening by impris- minority report as an excuse to launch his plan to oning those predicted to commit the crime before replace the police with the military. Anderton later it can actually occur. shoots and kills Kaplan in order to end the plot. The precogs later predict that Anderton will kill a As explained in the original story, “The three reports man named Leo Crow, even though Anderton does were consecutive.” Each of the three precogs not know anyone by that name. He flees, and comes had a different prediction because of Anderton’s to believe that there must be a minority report for knowledge of the preceding prediction. The first him because he has no reason to kill a stranger. But precog predicted that Anderton kills Kaplan in there was no “minority report” for Anderton in the order to stop Kaplan’s original plan to initiate film—all three precogs saw Anderton’s involvement martial law; but not in the prediction of the second in the killing. precog which factored in Anderton’s knowledge Anderton later discovers evidence that Crow is of the first prediction and his decision to not fulfill a serial child abductor who was involved in the it; yet Kaplan dies in the third’s prediction because disappearance of Anderton’s young son several Anderton changed his mind again after discover- years prior. Anderton raises his gun at Crow, ing the second’s minority report and Kaplan’s plan apparently intending to kill Crow. But, after a to use it to destroy the Precrime system. Professor lengthy pause, Anderton begins to give the Miranda Robert Batey analogized this to an aspect of Werner warnings—showing that he intends to arrest Crow Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: The measure- instead of murdering him. ment of an object can alter the object being measured. See Robert Batey, Minority Report and the Law of Attemp t, 1 Ohio St. J. Crim. L. 689, 691 (2004). Continued on next page. ◆ ◆ The Bencher November/December 2013 www.innsofcourt.org 13 The Reasonably Certain Ethics of a Minority Report continued from page 13. But Crow had been promised that his family would present and substantial threat of harm or injury would be provided for if he falsely confesses to having still exist. One could also draw an analogy to a three- previously kidnapped and killed Anderton’s child member judicial panel where a two-to-one majority years earlier, and allows Anderton to kill him. opinion would be the controlling decision. Believing that his family will not be recompensed if What if the lawyer asks the client about the death he does not die, Crow then wrestles with Anderton, predicted in the precog report? If the client responds urging him to shoot. During the struggle, the gun is that the victim is already dead, then Model Rule 1.6(b) discharged and Crow is killed. Although Anderton would no longer apply because disclosure would not did not intend to kill Crow, and thus lacked the prevent a death. But if the client does not confirm mens rea for murder, Crow is killed nonetheless. The the victim’s death, then the lawyer might reason- precog visions were technically correct (Crow dies) ably believe the victim could still be alive and that but incomplete (Crow caused his own death). disclosure would be necessary to prevent an imminent The film poses issues of free will, determinism, death. McClure v. Thompson , 323 F.3d 1233, 1247 and the meaning of “attempt” in criminal law. (9th Cir. 2003) (finding that a criminal defense lawyer One interpretation of the predictions in the film who disclosed to authorities where the bodies of two is that once enough precursor steps for a murder murder victims were located, did not violate his ethical have been taken to cause a precog report to be duty of confidentiality to the client who committed generated, the inertia of events set in motion will the murders because the client deliberately withheld lead to someone’s death unless thwarted by an the fate of the victims from the lawyer—”when [the intervening event such as an arrest by those having lawyer] informed [his client] that he had an obligation knowledge of the pending prediction. to disclose the children’s whereabouts if there were a chance they were alive, [the client] did not tell him How Certain Is a Precog Report? they were dead.”). So, would employing precogs give a lawyer clear guidance as to whether he or she can ethically And, if the lawyer has a precog report predicting disclose confidential client information in order to the client will cause someone’s death, then can prevent that client’s predicted wrongdoing? See the client still prevent disclosure by “refraining” Model Rule 1.6(b). Or would it just give a false sense from such wrongful conduct, as suggested in the of certainty? Comments to Model Rule 1.6? The existence of a precog report suggests that events already have If a lawyer believes that his or her client is contem- been set in motion that will result in someone’s death plating some wrongful conduct, would the lack notwithstanding the client’s decision to refrain from of a precog report indicate that the conduct was wrongful conduct, so a present and substantial not “reasonably certain” to cause harm or injury? threat may still persist unless outside actors with Assuming that the level of metaphysical certainty knowledge of the prediction intervene.