MAKING HANDS: A HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MYOELECTRIC UPPER LIMB PROSTHESES, 1945 TO 2010 by David J. A. Foord LLB, Dalhousie University, 1993 B.A. (History), Campion College, University of Regina, 1989 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate Academic Unit of Interdisciplinary Studies Supervisor: Gregory S. Kealey, PhD, FRSC, FRHistS Examining Board: Robert D. Austin, Faculty of Business Administration, Chairperson R. Steven Turner, PhD, Dept. of History John McLaughlin, PhD, Dept. of Geodesy & Geomatics Eng. Peter Kyberd,. Biomedical Engineering External Examiner: Andrew J. Gaudes, PhD, University of Regina Dean of the Faculty of Business Administration This dissertation is accepted by the Dean of Graduate Studies THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK June, 2013 © David Foord, 2013 ABSTRACT The dissertation examines the history of scientific research and technological innovation in the development of myoelectric, upper‐limb prostheses from 1945 to 2010. A general history of the field is presented, as well as individual case studies on the development of commercially significant technologies and products. The field history and cases are examined against major concepts of research and development (R&D) and technological innovation during the second half of the twentieth century. The major forces behind changes in the field have been technological innovation in other industries, especially transistors, microprocessors and batteries, government funding programs, and the engineers/entrepreneurs who, alone or in collaboration with others, directed the development projects. The engineers/entrepreneurs were in turn influenced by changing conceptions and practices of R&D, innovation, and entrepreneurship. The field history shows how conceptions and practice of R&D and product development changed over the period. Funding and R&D programs were designed in light of the linear model of innovation in the 1940s and 1950s. In the 1960s more pragmatic design engineering programs were originated at universities and hospitals, leading to the development of myoelectric upper limb devices by the 1970s. Government funding programs changed in the mid‐1970s, with a reduction in support for design engineering, and increased support for research. This led to new approaches within the field, including development of pattern recognition systems and targeted muscle reinnervation. The 1990s saw the rise of innovation oriented projects, with an increasing emphasis on development activties, ii international collaboration, project governance and strategic management, the use of complex legally binding agreements, intellectual property management, and commercialization. iii DEDICATION To my parents, Wilfred and Jacqueline Foord. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The idea for this dissertation arose in conversation at the UNB Grad House with Dr. Edmund Biden, UNB’s dean of graduate studies. He suggested the idea of writing a history of UNB’s institute of biomedical engineering (IBME), and more broadly of the field of upper limb myoelectric R&D, as the pioneers from the 1960s were not getting any younger. I thank Dr. Biden for his suggestion and the time he made available to talk about the topic and history of the IBME I am the student of four UNB professors who oversaw the design, research and writing of this dissertation. I thank each of Drs. Turner, Kyberd, McLaughlin, and Kealey for their patience and guidance, and detailed comments and questions on each of the drafts of the dissertation. Dr. R. Steven Turner is a historian of science, and was my mentor in both science and technology studies and historiography. Reading and discussion with Dr. Turner in both areas informed my approach to the dissertation. It was during these conversations that the idea shaped up to expand the dissertation to other micro‐histories. I am grateful for Dr. Turner’s detailed comments on the first and second drafts of the dissertation, and his suggestion to add a chapter on the history of the field. Dr. Peter Kyberd is the UNB chair in rehabilitation cybernetics and professor of electrical engineering. He is also a leading authority on control of prosthetic limbs. He kindly tutored me on the field, helped me gain a rudimentary understanding of the technologies described in this dissertation, suggested micro‐ v histories to research, and made introductions to most of the interview subjects outside of UNB. Dr. John Mclaughlin is an engineer, professor emeritus and president emeritus of UNB. Our conversations about R&D, innovation and entrepreneurship predate my graduate studies, AND laid a foundation for both my studies and interest in this dissertation topic. This dissertation benefitted from my readings in Dr. McLaughlin’s determinant of development course, and our on‐going conversations on the history of science, technology, engineering and business. Dr. Greg Kealey is a former vice president, research of UNB and professor of history. As my dissertation supervisor he was intimately involved in the development of each chapter of this document, prior to finalization of a first draft and delivery to my other dissertation committee members. The process included monthly meetings in Dr. Kealey’s office and I am appreciative of his patience and advice as I ‘made sense’ of each chapter. I am also thankful for the reading course he led on the history of higher education. It helped frame the discussion in the dissertation on university involvement in the development of myoelectric upper limb devices. I am also greatly indebted to my interest subjects who generously gave of their time and . They are: G. Bush, H. Deitel, D. Gow, S. Hubbard, Dr. B. Hudgins, Dr. K. Engelhart, E. Iverson, Dr. S. Jacobsen, Dr. R. Jerrard, Dr. P. Parker, G. McLearly, M. Mifsud, Dr. M. Milner, Dr. H. Sears, R.N. Scott, I. Timmen. I appreciate the time made available by Dr. Paul Forman for his review of select chapters of the dissertation and our discussion about the application of his ideas about modernity and vi postmodernity in this dissertation. His thoughtful comments were gratefully received. I thank David Wagner, President and CEO of Atlantic Hydrogen Inc. for his and the company’s support during my research and writing of this dissertation. Last, I acknowledge the generous and kind services of archival staff at the University of Edinburgh Archives in Edinburgh, the National Academy of Sciences Archives in Washington, D.C., and Library and Archives Canada in Ottawa. I especially thank Ms. Laura Gould at the University of Edinburgh Archives, Ms. Janice Goldblum at the National Academy of Sciences Archives and Ms. Vicky Dalrymple and Ms. Suzanne Lemaire at Library and Archives Canada. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................ii DEDICATION............................................................................................................................iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS........................................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................viii LIST OF FIGURES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.........................................................................ix LIST OF SYMBOLS, NOMENCLATURE, AND ABBREVIATIONS..................................xi LIST OF INTERVIEWS ........................................................................................................ xiii 1. INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................1 2. LITERATURE REVIEW I: SCIENCE, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT, ENGINEERING DESIGN, INNOVATION, ENTREPRENEURSHIP ............................... 28 3. LITERATURE REVIEW II: HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF UPPER LIMB MYOELECTRIC PROSTHESIS RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT............................. 80 4. HISTORY OF UPPER LIMB MYOELECTRIC PROSTHESES ................................ 96 5. METHODOLOGY AND METHOD.............................................................................130 6. CASE HISTORIES.........................................................................................................136 7. CONCLUSION ...............................................................................................................312 APPENDIX A – INTERVIEW QUESTIONS .....................................................................356 APPENDIX B – OBSERVATIONAL FORM CHECKLIST ..............................................362 CURRICULUM VITAE viii LIST OF FIGURES AND ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1: Components of a Myoelectric Prosthesis (Image source: R.N. Scott)..........14 Figure 2: Surface Electrodes: Image Courtesy of Liberating Technologies..................15 Figure 3: Myoelectric Signal (Image source: Temple University)....................................16 Figure 4: Image courtesy Benjamin Cummings .......................................................................17 Figure 5: Image courtesy Benjamin Cummings .......................................................................19 Figure 7: Otto Bock Single Degree of Freedom System Electric Hand (Image source: Otto Bock) .................................................................................................................................... 137 Figure 8: Otto Bock and Max