Third Edition Wine Science Principles and Applications This page intentionally left blank Third Edition Wine Science Principles and Applications Ronald S. Jackson, PhD AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO SYDNEY • TOKYO Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA 84 Theobald’s Road, London WC1X 8RR, UK 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495, USA First edition 1994 Second edition 2000 Third edition 2008 Copyright © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@ elsevier.com. Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verifi cation of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-12-373646-8 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our web site at books.elsevier.com Typeset by Charontec Ltd (A Macmillan Company), Chennai, India www.charontec.com Printed and bound in Canada 08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 The book is dedicated to the miraculous microbes that can turn a marvelous fruit into a seraphic beverage, to God who has given us the ability to savor its fi nest qualities and pleasures, and to my mother and father, to whom I will eternally owe a debt of gratitude for their unwavering support. This page intentionally left blank Contents About the Author xiii Preface xv 2 Acknowledgments xvii Grape Species and Varieties 1 Introduction 15 The Genus Vitis 16 Introduction Geographic Origin and Distribution of Vitis and Vitis vinifera 19 Grapevine and Wine Origin 1 Domestication of Vitis vinifera 21 Commercial Importance of Grapes and Wine 5 Cultivar Origins 26 Wine Classifi cation 6 Grapevine Improvement 31 Still Table Wines 8 Standard Breeding Techniques 31 Sparkling Wines 9 Genetic Engineering 33 Fortifi ed Wines (Dessert and Clonal Selection 34 Appetizer Wines) 10 Somaclonal Selection and Mutation 38 Wine Quality 10 Grapevine Cultivars 38 Health-related Aspects of Wine Vitis vinifera Cultivars 39 Consumption 11 Interspecies Hybrids 43 Suggested Readings 13 Suggested Readings 45 References 13 References 46 vii viii Contents 3 Consequences of Pathogenesis for Fruit Quality 183 Grapevine Structure and Function Examples of Grapevine Diseases and Pests 185 Harvesting 212 Vegetative Structure and Function 50 Criteria for Harvest Timing 212 The Root System 51 Sampling 215 The Shoot System 56 Harvest Mechanisms 216 Tendrils 61 Measurement of Vineyard Variability 220 Leaves 62 Suggested Readings 221 Reproductive Structure and Development 67 References 223 Infl orescence (Flower Cluster) 67 Berry Growth and Development 74 Suggested Readings 98 References 100 5 Site Selection and Climate 4 Soil Infl uences 240 Geologic Origin 240 Vineyard Practice Texture 240 Structure 241 Vine Cycle and Vineyard Activity 108 Drainage and Water Availability 242 Management of Vine Growth 111 Soil Depth 243 Yield/Quality Ratio 111 Soil Fauna and Flora 243 Physiological Effects of Pruning 114 Nutrient Content and pH 245 Pruning Options 116 Color 245 Pruning Level and Timing 117 Organic Content 246 Bearing Wood Selection 122 Topographic Infl uences 246 Pruning Procedures 122 Solar Exposure 247 Training Options and Systems 123 Wind Direction 248 Canopy Management and Training System Frost and Winter Protection 248 Development 132 Altitude 248 Selected Training Systems 132 Drainage 249 Ancient Roman Example 137 Atmospheric Infl uences 249 Control of Vine Vigor (Devigoration) 139 Temperature 251 Rootstock 140 Solar Radiation 259 Vine Propagation and Grafting 144 Wind 263 Multiplication Procedures 144 Water 264 Grafting 146 Suggested Readings 265 Soil Preparation 149 References 266 Vineyard Planting and Establishment 149 Irrigation 150 Timing and Need for Irrigation 155 Water Quality and Salinity 156 Types of Irrigation 157 6 Fertilization 160 Factors Affecting Nutrient Supply and Chemical Constituents of Acquisition 160 Grapes and Wine Assessment of Nutrient Need 163 Nutrient Requirements 165 Introduction 270 Organic Fertilizers 172 Overview of Chemical Functional Groups 271 Disease, Pest, and Weed Control 175 Chemical Constituents 274 Control of Pathogens 177 Water 274 Contents ix Sugars 274 Effects of Malolactic Fermentation 391 Pectins, Gums, and Related Origin and Growth of Lactic Acid Bacteria 394 Polysaccharides 275 Control 401 Alcohols 276 Appendix 7.1 403 Acids 278 Appendix 7.2 404 Phenols and Related Phenol (Phenyl) Suggested Readings 404 Derivatives 281 References 406 Aldehydes and Ketones 300 Acetals 301 Esters 301 8 Lactones and Other Oxygen Heterocycles 303 Terpenes and Oxygenated Postfermentation Treatments and Derivatives 304 Nitrogen-containing Compounds 305 Related Topics Sulfur-containing Compounds 307 Hydrocarbons and Derivatives 309 Wine Adjustments 418 Macromolecules 309 Acidity and pH Adjustment 419 Vitamins 311 Sweetening 421 Dissolved Gases 311 Dealcoholization 422 Minerals 316 Flavor Enhancement 422 Chemical Nature of Varietal Aromas 317 Sur lies Maturation 422 Appendix 6.1 320 Color Adjustment 423 Appendix 6.2 321 Blending 424 Appendix 6.3 322 Stabilization and Clarifi cation 425 Suggested Readings 322 Stabilization 425 References 323 Fining 435 Clarifi cation 438 Aging 441 Effects of Aging 443 7 Factors Affecting Aging 448 Rejuvenation of Old Wines 451 Fermentation Aging Potential 451 Oak and Cooperage 452 Basic Procedures of Wine Production 333 Oak Species and Wood Properties 452 Prefermentation Practices 334 Barrel Production 457 Destemming 334 Chemical Composition of Oak 466 Sorting 335 Oxygen Uptake 469 Crushing 336 In-barrel Fermentation 470 Supraextraction 336 Advantages and Disadvantages of Oak Maceration (Skin Contact) 336 Cooperage 470 Dejuicing 340 Alternative Sources of Oak Flavor 471 Pressing 340 Other Cooperage Materials 472 Must Clarifi cation 343 Cork and Other Bottle Closures 473 Adjustments to Juice and Must 344 Cork 473 Alcoholic Fermentation 352 Cork Faults 481 Fermentors 352 Alternative Bottle Closures 484 Fermentation 355 Cork Insertion 486 Biochemistry of Alcoholic Fermentation 358 Bottles and Other Containers 488 Yeasts 363 Glass Bottles 489 Environmental Factors Affecting Bag-in-box Containers 492 Fermentation 373 Wine Spoilage 493 Malolactic Fermentation 388 Cork-related Problems 493 Lactic Acid Bacteria 389 Yeast-induced Spoilage 494 x Contents Bacteria-induced Spoilage 496 World Wine Regions 589 Sulfur Off-odors 499 Western Europe 590 Additional Spoilage Problems 502 North Africa and the Near East 619 Accidental Contamination 504 Far East 619 Suggested Readings 506 Australia and New Zealand 620 References 507 South Africa 625 South America 627 North America 630 Suggested Readings 636 9 References 638 Specifi c and Distinctive Wine Styles 11 Sweet Table Wines 520 Sensory Perception and Botrytized Wines 521 Wine Assessment Nonbotrytized Sweet Wine 526 Red Wine Styles 527 Visual Sensations 641 Recioto-style Wines 527 Color 641 Carbonic Maceration Wines 529 Clarity 643 Sparkling Wines 538 Viscosity 643 Traditional Method 538 Spritz (Effervescence) 643 Transfer Method 546 Tears 643 Bulk Method 547 Taste and Mouth-feel 644 Other Methods 548 Taste 644 Carbonation 548 Factors Infl uencing Taste Perception 646 Production of Rosé and Red Mouth-feel 648 Sparkling Wines 548 Taste and Mouth-feel Sensations in Effervescence and Foam Characteristics 548 Wine Tasting 651 Fortifi ed Wines 552 Odor 652 Sherry and Sherry-like Wines 552 The Olfactory System 652 Porto and Port-like Wines 560 Odorants and Olfactory Stimulation 655 Madeira 563 Sensations from the Trigeminal Nerve 657 Vermouth 564 Odor Perception 657 Brandy 565 Factors Affecting Olfactory Perception 660 Suggested Readings 570 Odor Assessment in Wine Tasting 662 References 571 Off-odors 662 Wine Assessment and Sensory Analysis 664 Conditions for Sensory Analysis 665 Wine Score Cards 667 Number of Tasters 668 10 Tasters 669 Training 669 Wine Laws, Authentication, Measuring Tasting Acuity and Consistency 669 and Geography Wine-tasting Technique 670 Appearance 670 Appellation Control Laws 577 Orthonasal Odor 671 Basic Concepts and Signifi cance 577 In-mouth Sensations 672 Geographic Expression 579 Finish 674 Detection of Wine Misrepresentation and Assessment of Overall Quality 674 Adulteration 586 Wine Terminology 674 Validation of Geographic Origin 586 Statistical and Descriptive Analysis of Tasting Validation of Conformity to Wine Production Results 675