Copyright by Sean Francis Cashbaugh 2016 The Dissertation Committee for Sean Francis Cashbaugh Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: A Cultural History Beneath the Left: Politics, Art, and the Emergence of the Underground During the Cold War Committee: Randolph Lewis, Supervisor Brian A. Bremen John Hartigan Steven D. Hoelscher Donna Kornhaber Julia Mickenberg A Cultural History Beneath the Left: Politics, Art, and the Emergence of the Underground During the Cold War by Sean Francis Cashbaugh, B.A.; M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May 2016 Dedication To Cait, Tuli, and whoever comes next. Acknowledgements Rapper Kool A.D. (otherwise known as Victor Vasquez) inadvertently but aptly summarized the experience of writing a dissertation when he said, “I suck very much sometimes and other times I think, ‘Yo, I’m the f---ing man.’” Thankfully, I have had a large community of scholars, teachers, mentors, friends, and family that have made the latter far more frequent than the former as I completed this project. They have reassured me in the face of complex intellectual questions, asinine bureaucracies, the tedium of research, cross-country moves, and everything else one confronts as a late-twenty- something building a life and career while writing what is essentially the rough draft of a book that is far too long. First and foremost, I need to thank Randolph Lewis, the chair of my dissertation committee. I have been working with Randy since I was a second year Masters student, when I emailed him based on a hunch that he would make a good first reader on a Masters Report about weirdo science fiction fans and communism in the 1930s. In the nearly seven years since, he has been an invaluable mentor and friend, the very model of a teacher and scholar, the sort I hope to be. He offered invaluable feedback at every stage of the dissertation writing process and enthusiastically supported its more bizarre turns. His sense of humor and intellectual sensibilities mirror my own, and I am incredibly grateful that I had the opportunity to work with him during my time in graduate school. v I have worked with Julia Mickenberg ever since I came to UT in the fall of 2008. She was actually the first member of the faculty I ever spoke with – she took the time to meet with a naïve recent college graduate to discuss the world of graduate school. It was a great introduction to academia. Her enthusiasm for the labors of scholarship has been an inspiration, and her work has consistently served as a model for my own. Her feedback throughout the dissertation process was vital to my thinking. She has consistently gone above and beyond to support my academic work and professional goals. I am proud to have worked with her. The remaining members of dissertation committee have been invaluable teachers and mentors. Steven Hoelscher, John Hartigan, Brian Bremen, and Donna Kornhaber have all offered tremendous amounts of support and advice. Their comments during the prospectus meeting and during the dissertation defense were insightful and generative. Their collective enthusiasm for this project inspired me to work my hardest throughout the dissertation writing process. I am deeply appreciative of the fact that they took the time to work with me. This work is better for it. The entire faculty of the American Studies department has created an amazing intellectual community and I am grateful to have been a part of it. I would have washed out of grad school quite early if not for the guidance of the department’s amazing staff. Thanks to Ella Schwartz, Rachel Rutter, Chad Crawford, Stephanie Kaufman, and Valeri Nichols-Keller for making sure this department actually exists and for helping me navigate it, as well as the university as a whole, without getting lost. I also need to thank a few undergraduate professors who set me on this path. Many thanks to Timothy vi Barnard, Colleen Kennedy, Charles McGovern, and the rest of the faculty in the departments of English and American Studies at the College of William and Mary. This work would not exist without the careful attention and labors of librarians and archivists across the country. The staff at Perry-Castañeda Library is incredible. The Interlibrary Services Department and whoever decided to introduce the flatbed scanners on the first floor saved me on more than one occasion. Many thanks to the staff at the Harry Ransom Center, the Thomas J. Dodd Research Center at the University of Connecticut, the New York Public Library, and Archives and Special Collections at Columbia University. The Dodd Research Center awarded me a Rose and Sigmund Strochlitz Travel Grant to conduct research at their institution, and I deeply appreciate their enthusiasm for this project. I have said it before and I will say it again, there are none better than my comrades in graduate school. When I first came to UT, American Studies graduate students welcomed me with open arms. They have taught me as much, if not more, than faculty members at the University. Over the course of my eight years here, I have made countless friends that have sustained me when the stresses of work seemed insurmountable. They have expressed and enacted solidarity when misguided and self- serving administrators made decisions that impeded our ability to do our work. Most importantly, they have joined me in many nights of revelry at Hole in the Wall and other fine Austin establishments. Many of them have graduated and moved on, while others are just beginning their intellectual and academic journeys. I am grateful to them all. I would like to list everybody here, but this dissertation is long enough as it is. A few specific vii shout-outs, however, are necessary. I have forged a friendship with John Cline that is unmatched. Our late night conversations have shaped my intellectual sensibilities as much as any academic seminar. Brendan Gaughen is a BAMF of epic proportions and I cannot state that loudly enough. Carly Kocurek is one of the sharpest people I know and has always been eager to help out whenever possible. Some of my best memories involve hanging out with Andy Jones, and I promise I will make it to Cleveland soon. Susan Quesal and I entered grad school at the same time and I deeply value our conversations over the years. Late night arguments with Andrew Busch are the pinnacle of intellectual debate. Sherri Sheu’s unbridled enthusiasm for almost everything inspires me to do the same. Hopping between my office and the one next door to grab something from Littlefield’s with Kirsten Ronald made sparsely attended office hours enjoyable. Anne Gessler has offered perceptive advice time and time again. Tracy Wuster was and always will be the wise sage of departmental lore. Shout out to Carrie Andersen, Philis Barragan, Marvin Bendele, Gavin Benke, Jose Centeno-Melendez, Eric Covey, Dave Croke, Stephanie Kolberg, Ellen Cunningham-Kruppa, Irene Garza, Amanda Gray, Andi Gustavson, David Juarez, Julie Kantor, Kerry Knerr, Josh Kopin, Katie Feo Kelly, Lily Laux, Robert Oxford, Emily Roehl, and Eddie Whitewolf. Every member of The Machine in the Garden is an MVP in my book. An amazing circle of friends outside graduate school came through for me time and time again, even when thousands of miles separated us. Many thanks to Bayley Butler, Brian Chiglinsky, Robyn Davies, Caitie Davis, Noelle Spiel Gaughen, Jessica Heselschwerdt, Matt Mascolo, Ed Melendez, Ismael Rivera, Kirstan Ryan, Santosh viii Sateesh, Renee Searfoss, Anand Sharma, Robert “Hurricane” Thompson, Emily Weber, Lindsay Weber, and Fernando Valle. Over the years, Jack and Kim Weber have helped out in myriad ways and I am very grateful. Thank you Based God. My family has supported me in innumerable ways. My parents, Kim and Elaine Cashbaugh, have encouraged me at every step in this process. Even when they seemed baffled by my life as a would-be scholar, they have always listened attentively and encouraged my academic pursuits, always lending a hand whenever it was needed. The same should be said of my brother, Justin. Throughout the years, he has been an invaluable and often hilarious intellectual sparring partner. One person deserves more thanks than most: Caitlin Elizabeth Weber. She has been the center of my life since before I started graduate school and has been there every step of the way. I began thinking of the ideas contained herein shortly before I proposed to her. I defended my prospectus shortly before we wed. The writing of this project from beginning to end accompanied the first few years of our marriage. She has patiently listened to me talk endlessly about underground culture and graciously tolerated some weird movies. She has proofread countless pages and never failed to point out every moment I left out words like “the.” When it got really difficult, she looked me in the eye and assured me that not only would I finish, but I would do so amazingly. I love her and her love has made all of this possible. ix A Cultural History Beneath the Left: Politics, Art, and the Emergence of the Underground During the Cold War Sean Francis Cashbaugh, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2016 Supervisor: Randolph Lewis When critics use “underground” to describe cultural matters today, its meaning is clear: it describes something obscure, transgressive, and opposed to the “mainstream.” This is a relatively recent understanding of the term.