Cornish Carols: Heritage in California and South Australia A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Ethnomusicology by Elizabeth K Neale © Elizabeth K Neale September 2018 ii Declarations CANDIDATE’S ID NUMBER: C1364281 CANDIDATE’S SURNAME: NEALE CANDIDATE’S FULL FORENAMES: ELIZABETH KATHERINE RUTH Statement 1 This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any other degree or award, and is not being submitted concurrently in candidature for any other degree or other award. Signed ..................................................... (candidate) Date .............................. Statement 2 This dissertation is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD. Signed ..................................................... (candidate) Date .............................. Statement 3 This dissertation is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. The views expressed are my own. Signed ..................................................... (candidate) Date .............................. Statement 4 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed ..................................................... (candidate) Date .............................. Statement 5 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available online in the University’s Open Access repository and for inter-library loan after expiry of a bar on access previously approved by the Academic Standards and Quality Committee. Signed ..................................................... (candidate) Date .............................. iii iv Acknowledgements There are a number of institutions and individuals that I would like to thank in connection with this thesis. My research was made possible by a studentship from the AHRC, via the South West and Wales Doctoral Training Partnership. I would like to thank the SWW DTP’s administrators, Rose Jones and Chantelle Payne, whose help was very much appreciated. I also received financial support from the Q Fund, through Cornwall Council, the Cornwall Heritage Trust, and the David Cawthra Fund at the University of Exeter. I am deeply indebted to those at my co-supervisory institutions, Cardiff University and the University of Exeter. I am sincerely grateful to my supervisor, Prof. John Morgan O’Connell, whose insight and guidance has been crucial in the direction and completion of my research. Elsewhere within the School of Music in Cardiff University I would like to thank librarians Mary Williams, Judith Hurford, Judith Rose and Charity Dove, and my fellow PhD students for their support and friendship. I would also like to thank my co-supervisor, Dr Garry Tregidga at the Institute of Cornish Studies at the University of Exeter, for his support throughout my research. I am grateful to acknowledge the many individuals in my field sites and research locations who helped me in both professional and personal capacities. So many people assisted me that I cannot name everyone; anyone noticing their name is missing from the following, please know that you have my sincere gratitude. In the USA, I thank Eleanor Kenitzer, Gage McKinney, and the Grass Valley Carol Choir singers; without their kindness and help I could not have undertaken both the fieldwork and archival work crucial to this project. I would also like to thank the staff at the Grass Valley Downtown Association, Doris Foley Library and the Searls Historical Library, and the State Library of California. During my studies I was v awarded a five month AHRC International Placement Scheme Fellowship at the Library of Congress. This was a formative time for me and I would particularly like to thank Mary Lou Reker and Travis Hensley at the Kluge Center, and all the scholars I shared that space with in 2016. Staff across a variety of Divisions patiently assisted me with my research. At the American Folklife Center I am hugely grateful to, Jennifer Cutting, Nancy Grose, Todd Harvey and Steve Winick. I would also particularly like to thank all at the Recorded Sound and Manuscript Divisions. In Australia, I would like to thank the librarians and archivists at the National Trust at Moonta, the State Library of South Australia, the Migration Museum, and the National Library of Australia. In the Copper Triangle, I would like to thank Mayor Paul Thomas, all those at the National Trust, the Family History Unit, Kernewek Lowender Committee, and the Progress Association. In particular I would like to thank Trevor Bowden, Liz Coole, June Ladner, Fred and Pam Reynolds, Graham Sobey, and Gordon and Anita Woods. Elsewhere, I would also like to thank members of the Cornish Association, Terry and Margaret Johnson, and Philip and Dee Payton. Importantly, I would like to thank John Buckingham for introducing me to the Padstow carols in 2010, and Noel Carthew, who sent me the Cornish-Australian carol books in 2011; that was the very start of what has been a life changing journey and I want to acknowledge it. In the UK, I would like to thank the staff of the Cornwall Record Office, Angela Broome at the Courtney Library at the Royal Cornwall Museum, and the Cornish Studies Library, and the librarians at the British Library. I would like to thank Joyce Froome for her assistance in proofreading. Finally, I am forever grateful to my friends and family for their unwavering love and support over the course of what has been an equally exciting and demanding four years. vi Table of Contents Declarations ................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ v Table of Contents ........................................................................................................ vii List of Figures ............................................................................................................... ix List of Plates .................................................................................................................. x List of Tables ................................................................................................................ xi List of Examples ......................................................................................................... xii List of Charts............................................................................................................... xii Conventions ............................................................................................................... xiii Abstract ........................................................................................................................ xv Chapter 1: Carols, Cornwall and the Diaspora ................................................... 16 1.1: Introduction: The Neglect of Cornish Carols ................................................ 16 1.2: Cornwall, its History and Diaspora ................................................................ 24 1.3: Cornish Carols: Ethnomusicological Contributions ...................................... 49 Chapter 2: Cornish Carols: The Emergence of a Genre ..................................... 55 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 55 2.1: Carols in Context: Genre, History, Development .......................................... 56 2.2: Carols in Cornwall: Fuging and Otherwise ................................................... 61 2.3: Carols in the USA .......................................................................................... 88 2.4: Carols in Australia ......................................................................................... 98 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 107 Chapter 3: Carols as Heritage: Theory and Method ......................................... 110 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 110 3.1: Defining Heritage and its Studies ................................................................ 111 3.2: Heritage in Ethnomusicology ...................................................................... 122 3.3: Musical Heritage: Theoretical Approach ..................................................... 135 3.4: Musical Heritage: Methodological Approaches .......................................... 142 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 160 Section 1: Cornish Carols: Recovering Heritage Products .................................. 162 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 162 Chapter 4: Grass Valley: Tracing Selection ....................................................... 164 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 164 4.1: Early References to Carolling: ‘The Old-Fashioned Way’ ......................... 165 4.2: Manuscript