MOORINGS: INDIAN OCEAN TRADE AND THE STATE IN EAST AFRICA A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Nidhi Mahajan August 2015 © 2015 Nidhi Mahajan MOORINGS: INDIAN OCEAN TRADE AND THE STATE IN EAST AFRICA Nidhi Mahajan, Ph. D. Cornell University 2015 Ever since the 1998 bombings of American embassies in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam, especially post - 9/11 and the “War on Terror,” the Kenyan coast and the Indian Ocean beyond have become flashpoints for national and international security. The predominantly Muslim sailors, merchants, and residents of the coast, with transnational links to Somalia, the Middle East, and South Asia have increasingly become the object of suspicion. Governments and media alike assume that these longstanding transnational linkages, especially in the historical sailing vessel or dhow trade, are entwined with networks of terror. This study argues that these contemporary security concerns gesture to an anxiety over the coast’s long history of trade and social relations across the Indian Ocean and inland Africa. At the heart of these tensions are competing notions of sovereignty and territoriality, as sovereign nation-states attempt to regulate and control trades that have historically implicated polities that operated on a loose, shared, and layered notion of sovereignty and an “itinerant territoriality.” Based on over twenty-two months of archival and ethnographic research in Kenya and India, this dissertation examines state attempts to regulate Indian Ocean trade, and the manner in which participants in these trades maneuver regulatory regimes. Ethnographic research on board sailing vessels or dhows as they are docked at Mombasa’s Old Port, and amongst residents of Mombasa and Lamu suggests that regulation has pushed these trades into the shadow economy where the lines between legal and illegal trade are blurred. This has led to increased insecurity, giving rise to many rumors that attempt to make sense of uncertainty. In an environment of increased regulation and surveillance, participants of these trades and residents of these port cities also respond by seeking to establish social orders that are not anchored in the modern nation-state, harnessing imaginaries that gesture to an Indian Ocean past and alternative conceptions of belonging. Focusing on the everyday life and maneuvers of sailors, merchants, and activists, this dissertation demonstrates that Indian Ocean trade and social relations persist in the contemporary era, these linkages only made visible through a focus on trade and social relations that lie at the margins of the Kenyan state. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Nidhi Mahajan completed the International Baccalaureate at Kodaikanal International School in India in 2002. She then began her undergraduate degree at the University of Michigan – Ann Arbor, receiving a B.A. in Anthropology (with High Honors) and Social Science, with a minor in Afroamerican and African Studies in 2006. Nidhi received the M.A. in Anthropology in 2011, and PhD in 2015 from Cornell University. iii For my grandparents iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS “A ship does not sail if nobody sails her,” instructs a proverb from Lamu. As sailors of the Indian Ocean know only too well, one never sails alone. It takes many laboring hands, a crew that works together to set sail and complete a voyage. Similarly, this project was made possible by the untiring kindness, generosity, and patience of numerous teachers, friends, mentors, and family members in different parts of the world. Many of them cannot be named here, especially the people of Mombasa, Lamu, and Kutch who welcomed me onboard vessels and into their homes, making fieldwork an absolute delight, even in troubling times. To them, I owe my deepest gratitude. I am very grateful for my dissertation committee, who have been unwavering in their support and generosity. Viranjini Munasinghe’s encouragement of this project since its blurry beginnings has been invaluable. Viranjini, your warmth, humor, and intellectual rigor through these many years are much treasured. Thank you for the careful readings of my work, and for pushing me to move out of my “comfort zone.” You always put things in perspective. Eric Taglicozzo’s own work, vast knowledge, and extensive travels in the Indian Ocean have been a constant inspiration. Eric, thank you for your congeniality, thoughtfulness, and enthusiasm. Prita Meier’s arrival at Cornell was a fortuitous turning point for me. Prita, you made research in Mombasa possible and your sensitivity, support, and consistent efforts to make me a better thinker and writer are much appreciated. In many ways, you have paved the way. Anne Blackburn’s never faltering editing hand, and thorough reading made the completion of this dissertation possible, even when I couldn’t see a way forward. Thank you Anne, for being such an attentive reader, for the thoughtful morale boosts, and for helping me understand what I have been trying to say, dissertation and beyond. Saida Hodzic’s insightful comments and suggestions continue to shape v this project beyond its current form. Saida, your kindness, your ability to get to the heart of the matter, and constructive advice are much valued. I owe a special thanks to Fouad Makki, whose ideas and advice have shaped this project since the beginning. Thank you Fouad, for challenging me to think more critically. At Cornell University, I have been fortunate to have the support and advice of many teachers, especially in the Anthropology Department and the South Asia Program. Thank you, Kathryn March, Steve Sangren, David Holmberg, Stacey Langwick, Adam Smith, Nerissa Russell, Kurt Jordan, Hiro Miyazake, Jane Fajans, Billie Jean Isbell, Thomas Volman, John Henderson, Durba Ghosh, and Iftikhar Dadi. Mwalimu Abdul Nanji’s Kiswahili lessons allowed me to enter new linguistic worlds. Courses with Lauren Benton and Fernando Coronil resonate more today than I first understood. While Fernando Coronil is no longer with us, his ideas and dedicated teaching shall not be forgotten. Indrani Chatterjee’s advice gave me much hope. Also, special thanks to Maxwell Owusu and Thomas Metcalf, who first introduced me to Anthropology, History, and the Indian Ocean world as an undergraduate. Donna Duncan, Bruce Roebal, and Margaret Rolfe kept me on top of piles of paperwork and saw me through many an administrative hurdle. Thanks also to the library staff at Cornell, who were incredibly patient with my many requests. The late Ali Mazrui’s kindness, and advice opened many doors for me in Kenya. Professor Abdalla Bujra’s constant patience, suggestions, and his own work have shaped many of my ideas. Without him, I would still be fumbling, and trying to find my way around in Lamu. Athman Lali Omar is a mentor without whom I would not be able to make sense of much of the subtleties of life on the coast. A short, but enduring conversation with Paul Goldsmith encouraged me to move forward. Abdul Sheriff’s advice and help made me see historic Mombasa and Zanzibar, anew. vi I shall perhaps forever be unable to express my appreciation for many in Kenya and India who made this research possible. In Nairobi, Simon and Judie Ndiege gave me a home and helped me navigate the city. Allan Ndiege tirelessly knocked on many a government office door for a much needed research permit. Surinder and Dinesh Kapila made living in Nairobi pleasant and comfortable. Rukiya Abdulrehman Said and Mohamed Mchulla made me feel immediately at home in Mombasa and have become like family. Without them, I would never have gained a footing in Mombasa and Lamu. Their children and extended family, especially Fadhil, Saidi, Samir, Arafat, and Lubna were so much fun to live with (Saidi, you will start that “kuku business,” one day, Inshallah). Suresh and Neela Popat continue to teach me much about Kenya, hospitality, and the delicate art of telling a good joke. Together with Mona (Mrunalini) and Harish Palan, they took me under their wing, always ready to feed me delicious home-cooked meals and made sure that I was safe. Chengo gave me a home in Lamu. Rukiya Ali helped transcribe interviews. Said Mohamed’s unbounded energy and ability to follow a good story made research in Lamu possible. The good cheer and assistance of the staff at the Kenya National Archives in Nairobi, Maharashtra State Archives in Bombay, and Zanzibar National Archives made archival work pleasant even on the hottest of days. Yet, much of this story remains to be written. Fieldwork in Kenya was generously supported by a Dissertation Fieldwork Grant from the Wenner-Gren Foundation. While in Kenya, I was affiliated with the University of Nairobi. Research trips to India and Kenya were funded by the Einaudi Center for International Studies, Bernard Cohn Memorial Fund for Graduate Research, a Graduate Student Humanities Travel Research Grant from the Society of Humanities, and a travel grant from the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at Cornell University. A Mellon/ACLS Dissertation Completion Fellowship vii allowed for an uninterrupted period of writing and research. Comments by participants at the American Anthropological Association Meetings, NYU’s Department of Social and Cultural Analysis “The Question of Method” Speaker Series (especially Michael Ralph), and Cornell University’s South Asia Program Seminar series are much appreciated. This work would not have been possible without the friendship of Adi Grabiner-Keinan, Deniz Yonucu, Rishad Choudhury, John Phan, Tina Shrestha, Bernardo Brown, Alexandra Lane, Carter Higgins, Yasmine Singh, Vivian Choi, Erick White, Osama Siddiqui, Yagna Nag Chowdhury, Olujumoke Warritay, Sadia Shirazi, Evren Dincer, Can Dalyan, Andrew Amstutz, Bronwen Bledsoe, Reighan Gillam, Ivan Small, Vincent Burgess, Praveen Gowtham, Todd Dickey, SoYeon Lee, Sandhya Moraes, Dory Benford, Farah Ladhabhoy, Shantanu Saptarshi, Tina Byenkya, William JaVon Rice, Surair Bashir, Talal Awartani, Maya Wilson, Marisa Feliciano, and Gayatri Khanna.