Copyright by Robert Warren Wilson 2012 The Dissertation Committee for Robert Warren Wilson Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: A tear in my eye but I cannot cry: An ethnographic multiple case study on the language ecology of Urumchi, Xinjiang and the language practices of Uyghur young adults Committee: Luis Urrieta, Jr., Supervisor Arienne M. Dwyer Elaine K. Horwitz Angela M. Nonaka Deborah Palmer A tear in my eye but I cannot cry: An ethnographic multiple case study on the language ecology of Urumchi, Xinjiang and the language practices of Uyghur young adults by Robert Warren Wilson, B.A.; M.S. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May 2012 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of Charles Wilson and Nancy Koppen. Acknowledgements This dissertation study was a complex endeavor, and its realization would not have been possible without the support and encouragement of numerous people. I wish to thank the members of my dissertation committee: Dr. Luis Urrieta, Jr., Dr. Arienne Dwyer, Dr. Elaine Horwitz, Dr. Angela Nonaka, and Dr. Deborah Palmer. Thank you for your meaningful input. Through conversations and interactions with you, I had the honor of learning the meaning of rigorous social science. You have equipped me with the tools that I will use for the duration of my academic career. I thank Luis who invested a great deal of time and effort guiding this study and my development as a scholar. I thank Arienne, from the University of Kansas, whose scholarship served as a foundation of my own. I also thank Elaine for creating a supportive academic environment that allowed me to explore my research concerns. Instead of articulating an eloquent debt of gratitude, I promise to express my thanks by maintaining rigorous research standards and providing my own students opportunities to develop their own self-sufficiency. I thank Dr. Patricia Killian and Dr. Eric Dwyer, both of whom I had the privilege of working with at Florida International University. Your approach to pedagogy, and especially that of progressive education, is a constant source of inspiration. To my consultants and advisors in the Uyghur region, this dissertation is the result of our collaborative effort. These professional and personal relationships have greatly enriched my life, and it has been my honor to walk the path with you. I wish to thank my family: Warren and Donna Wilson; Kim, Mike, and the entire Chase family; Robert and Betty Koppen; and Vivian Wilson. Mom and Dad, your love and support have enabled me to realize my dreams. It is the security and stability of my family that allowed me to enter an environment with little support structure. The days and v months following the extreme violence of July 5, 2009 were difficult to endure, as lines of communication were severed. Those were anxious days, but your support did not waver. Thank you for trusting me and having faith. Finally, mening ayalim, always know: men sizni mengu soyma. vi A tear in my eye but I cannot cry: An ethnographic multiple case study on the language ecology of Xinjiang and the language practices of Uyghur young adults Robert Warren Wilson, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2012 Supervisor: Luis Urrieta, Jr. This ethnographic study investigates the language ecology of Urumchi, Xinjiang with a focus on contextual factors as related to the language practices of Uyghur young adults. The thesis explores how the migration and settlement of Han Chinese, coupled with the expansion of Mandarin (and corresponding marginalization of Uyghur and other ethnic minority languages) in the Xinjiang education system has resulted in a punctuation of the linguistic equilibrium of the province. This study demonstrates how socio-political forces contribute to the devaluation of minority linguistic capital in a linguistic market, and how a language policy in the domestic field, as the primary structuring structure, may be utilized to stabilize diglossia and maintain the intergenerational transmission of a minority language. Participant observation, interview and documentary data were collected over an 18-month period of fieldwork in Urumchi. The analysis of interview data from 26 Uyghur adults, defined as early to mid-twenty years of age, who had been educated in vii Mandarin classes (mínkăohàn), Uyghur classes (mínkăomín), and bilingual Mandarin- Uyghur classes (shuāngyǔ) or a combination of these programs yielded four themes: context and language investments; expected returns; language choice; and linguistic anxiety. The data suggests a high degree of ambivalence among Uyghur young adults toward Mandarin; this form of cultural capital is conceived of as requisite for participation in the Han Chinese dominated economy, yet of a colonial nature and damaging to the demarcation of Uyghur social identity. Case study narratives are presented on four Uyghur young adults: one female educated in Mandarin classes (mínkăohàn); one male educated in Mandarin classes (mínkăohàn); one female educated in Uyghur primary and Mandarin-Uyghur secondary classes (mínkăomín/shuāngyǔ); and one male educated in Uyghur primary and Mandarin- Uyghur secondary classes (mínkăomín/shuāngyǔ). Each case study consultant completed a 94-item expressive vocabulary assessment. The data suggests that the expansion of Mandarin as the language of instruction in the Xinjiang education system has resulted in unstable diglossia among Uyghur communities, evidenced by Uyghur language attrition and Mandarin-Uyghur code-switching. Findings emphasize contextual factors that are contributing to the disruption of the intergenerational transmission of Uyghur and actions to support the vitality of this cultural heritage. viii Table of Contents List of Tables ......................................................................................................... xii! List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................ xiii! Note on Toponyms and Transliterations .............................................................. xiv! Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................ 1! 1.1 Context of the study .................................................................................. 1! 1.2 Purpose of the study ................................................................................. 4! 1.3 Theoretical significance of the study ........................................................ 6! 1.4 Practical significance of the study ............................................................ 7! 1.5 Overview of the dissertation ................................................................... 10! Chapter 2: Literature review .................................................................................. 13! 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 13! 2.2 Background on the Uyghurs and Xinjiang ............................................. 13! 2.2.1 Sources of Uyghur discontent .................................................... 22! 2.2.2 Geopolitics, natural resources and CCP investments ................. 29! 2.3 Confucian and Communist civilizing projects ....................................... 32! 2.4 Language Policy in Xinjiang: A historical overview ............................. 37! 2.5 Critical analysis of bilingual education in Xinjiang ............................... 49! 2.6 Bourdieu’s theory of practice ................................................................. 53! 2.6.1 Applications of Bourdieu’s theory to the study of language ...... 61! 2.7 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 65! Chapter 3: Methodology ........................................................................................ 69! 3.1 Research methodology overview ........................................................... 69! 3.2 The research site ..................................................................................... 69! 3.3 Ethnography and earlier ethnographic studies on Xinjiang/Uyghurs ..... 71! 3.3.1 Significant events at site ............................................................. 80! 3.3.1.1 Methodological implications .......................................... 88! ix 3.4 Participant selection criteria ................................................................... 92! 3.5 Methods .................................................................................................. 95! 3.5.1 Ethnographic case study methodology ....................................... 96! 3.5.2 Participant observation ............................................................... 99! 3.5.2.1 Notes ............................................................................. 104! 3.5.3 Interviews ................................................................................. 107! 3.5.4 Documents ................................................................................ 109! 3.5.5 Expressive vocabulary assessment ........................................... 113! 3.6 Data analysis ......................................................................................... 115! 3.6.1 Thematic analysis procedure ...................................................