The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Health and Human Development RULE BRITANNIA: NATIONALISM, IDENTITY, AND THE MODERN OLYMPIC GAMES A Dissertation in Kinesiology by Matthew P. Llewellyn ©2010 Matthew P. Llewellyn Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2010 The dissertation of Matthew P. Llewellyn was reviewed and approved* by the following: Mark S. Dyreson Associate Professor of Kinesiology Dissertation Adviser Chair of Committee R. Scott Kretchmar Professor of Kinesiology James Thompson Professor Emeritus of Kinesiology Garry Chick Professor of Recreation, Park and Tourism Management Martin Polley Senior Lecturer of Sport History University of Southampton, UK Special Member Karl M. Newell Professor of Kinesiology Head of Department of Kinesiology *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School ii Abstract As the cradle of modern sport, Britain‘s rich sporting history contributed significantly to the nation‘s identity both at home and abroad. Through their governance and control of leading bureaucratic organizations and clubs, the British established and maintained a position of leadership both on and off the field. Britain‘s early sporting dominance, coupled with the use of sport as medium for shaping the abilities, values and character of a British governing class, cultivated a belief that sport played a crucial role in the acquisition and consolidation of British hegemonic power. After an initial period of unrivalled dominance, Britain‘s monopolistic position as leader of modern sport eventually came under serious assault. Britain‘s historical sporting supremacy—similar to her imperial and economic power in general—was relative, not absolute; a position predicated more on the weaknesses of her opponents rather than her own strengths. Like the example of industrialization, a ―catch-up‖ phenomenon quickly occurred. As foreign nations gained experience and established sporting institutions and customs of their own, free from the restraints of Victorian notions of ―true‖ amateurism and often with direct governmental assistance, British prowess diminished at an alarming rate. Perceiving an unwelcome deterioration in their country‘s relative position as a military, economic, imperial, and sporting power, the predominantly elite and politically conservative members of the British Olympic Association (BOA) naturally embraced the Olympic Games as a platform for promoting British interests. Throughout the two decades following the establishment of the BOA in 1905, Britain‘s Olympic leaders pursued an administrative policy designed to stem the tide of British decline, both iii perceived and real. Within the framework of the Olympic movement, BOA chiefs fought bitterly to maintain a sporting union with Ireland, endeavored to foster a greater sense of imperial identity with her white dominions, and even undertook an ambitious policy of athletic specialization designed to reverse the nation‘s waning fortunes in international sport. The BOA‘s nation-building efforts faced strong opposition in the face of political squabbling between the constituent parts of the British Isle, the rising political independence of the dominions, and unwavering British public and governmental aversion to the Olympic Games. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi Introduction: An Indifferent Beginning ....................................................................1 Olympic Heritage ................................................................................................................. 2 A Modern Olympic Revival .................................................................................................. 8 The First Modern Olympic Games ........................................................................................ 15 A Struggle for Survival ......................................................................................................... 20 British Olympic Association ................................................................................................. 24 Chapter One: Lighting the Olympic Flame ................................................................31 Making the British Team ....................................................................................................... 33 Onwards to Athens ................................................................................................................ 37 The 1906 Intermediate Games............................................................................................... 40 Erin Go Brάgh ...................................................................................................................... 42 A United‖ Kingdom? ............................................................................................................. 49 A Weary Titan ....................................................................................................................... 54 Olympic, or not Olympic? ..................................................................................................... 60 Chapter Two: A British Olympics ..............................................................................63 The Franco-British Exhibition ............................................................................................... 67 An Olympic Effort ................................................................................................................. 68 Designing the Olympic Program ........................................................................................... 72 Uniting the Kingdom ............................................................................................................. 76 ―Irish athletes are ‗Not‘ British‖ ............................................................................................ 81 An Olympic Appeal ............................................................................................................... 84 The First British Olympics .................................................................................................... 88 Chapter Three: The Battle of Shepherds Bush ..........................................................91 Ticketing Fiasco .................................................................................................................... 94 The Anglo-American War ..................................................................................................... 97 The Battle of the Systems ...................................................................................................... 104 ―John Bull and His True Colors‖ ........................................................................................... 107 A ―Special‖ Relationship ...................................................................................................... 109 A British Olympic Victory? ................................................................................................. 113 ―War Minus the Shooting?‖ .................................................................................................. 117 v Chapter Four: “A Tale of National Disaster” .............................................................121 Preparing for Failure ............................................................................................................. 123 Preserving the Kingdom ........................................................................................................ 127 Greater Britain ...................................................................................................................... 129 Play Up and Play the Game ................................................................................................... 132 Rivalry, and Dissension ........................................................................................................ 135 ―A public advertisement of British decay‖ ............................................................................ 139 A Nation Divided ................................................................................................................. 141 Chapter Five: The Empire Saver ................................................................................149 The ―Special Committee‖ and Olympic Reform ................................................................... 151 £100,000 Appeal for National Subscriptions ........................................................................ 158 Sport as Cultural Propaganda ............................................................................................... 162 Continued Public Apathy ...................................................................................................... 164 The Retirement of the Special Committee ............................................................................ 166 On to Berlin! .......................................................................................................................... 169 Chapter Six: “Olympic Games are an International Farce.......................................176 The Question of Sending a British Team .............................................................................. 177 An Olympic Appeal ............................................................................................................... 186 A Step towards Independence ..............................................................................................