CULTIVATING FREEDOM: AN ARCHAEOLOGY OF AGENCY AT THE CLEMENS FARM A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE MASTER OF ARTS IN ANTHROPOLOGY BY JESSICA L. CLARK DR. MARK GROOVER - ADVISOR BALL STATE UNIVERSITY MUNCIE, INDIANA JULY 2017 ii Contents List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………..v List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………….vii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………….ix Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………………1 Chapter 2: Theoretical Perspective………………………………………………………………..9 Agency in Structure……………………………………………………………………….9 World-Systems Theory…………………………………………………………………..11 Systemic Racism…………………………………………………………………………13 Chapter 3: Historic Context……………………………………………………………………...21 Augusta and Rockingham Counties, Virginia…………………………………………...19 The Sellers Family……………………………………………………………………….24 Virginia Sellers and their Ohio Connections…………………………………………….29 Freedom in the Midwest: Ohio and Indiana……………………………………………..30 Darke County and Longtown…………………………………………………………….31 James and Sophia Clemens………………………………………………………………33 Locally Specific and Synchronic: Details of Excavations at the Clemens Farm………...41 Chapter 4: Literature Review…………………………………………………………………….47 Enslaved Contexts………………………………………………………………………..47 Intentional Construction of the Planter Landscape………………………………………50 Midwestern and Diasporic Contexts……………………………………………………..51 Domestic Architecture in the Mid-Atlantic and the Midwest……………………………55 Mid-Atlantic Domestic Architecture…………………………………………….56 iii Midwestern Domestic Architecture……………………………………………...57 I-house Forms and Federal Architecture…………………………………………57 Chapter 5: Methods and Analysis………………………………………………………………..62 Virginia and West Virginia: Data Sources and Methodology…………………………...62 Ohio and Indiana: Data Sources and Methodology……………………………………...65 Limitations of Data and Methods………………………………………………………..68 Analysis: Virginia and West Virginia Architectural Sample…………………………….70 Analysis: Ohio and Indiana Architectural Sample……………………………………….77 Federal I-house Sub-Analysis……………………………………………………………86 Chapter 6: Results………………………………………………………………………………..90 Results for Virginia and West Virginia…………………………………………………90 Construction Material……………………………………………………………90 Architectural Style……………………………………………………………….93 Frequency of Architectural Style among Building Materials……………………96 Frequency of Building Materials among Architectural Styles…………………100 Chimney Attributes: Location…………………………………………………..102 Chimney Attributes: Quantity…………………………………………………..106 Chimney Attributes: Construction Material…………………………………….108 Results for Ohio and Indiana…………………………………………………………...110 Construction Material…………………………………………………………..110 Architectural Style……………………………………………………………...112 Frequency of Architectural Style among Building Materials…………………..117 Frequency of Building Materials among Architectural Style…………………..120 iv Chimney Attributes: Location…………………………………………………..122 Chimney Attributes: Quantity…………………………………………………..124 Chimney Attributes: Construction Material…………………………………….126 Succinct Review of Architectural Results……………………………………………...128 Virginia and West Virginia……………………………………………………..128 Ohio and Indiana………………………………………………………………..129 Federal I-house Sub-Analysis…………………………………………………………..130 Review of Extant Archaeological Assemblage…………………………………………132 Ceramics………………………………………………………………………..132 Faunal…………………………………………………………………………...133 Chapter 7: Conclusions and Suggestions for Further Research………………………………...135 Concluding Discussion…………………………………………………………………135 Suggestions for Further Research………………………………………………………140 References Cited………………………………………………………………………………..146 v List of Figures 1: The Clemens farmhouse……………………………………………………………………….5 2: Clemens farm, late 19th century………………………………………………………………39 3: Site map of posthole tests and excavation units at the Clemens farm……………………..…42 4: Site map of posthole tests and excavation units at the Clemens farm………………………..43 5: Artifact density map for the Clemens farm site………………………………………………44 6: Density map illustrating the location of middens……………………………………………..45 7: The Clemens farmhouse……………………………………………………………………...58 8: Map of architectural survey areas……………………………………………………………..87 9: Map of Southeastern architectural survey region……………………………………………..88 10: Map of Midwestern architectural survey region……………………………………………..89 11: Construction Material Frequency (VA and WV)……………………………………………91 12: Construction Material Frequency, 20-year Intervals (VA and WV)………………………...93 13: Architectural Style Frequency (VA and WV)……………………………………………….94 14: Architectural Style Frequency, 20-year Intervals (VA and WV)……………………………96 15: Chimney Location (VA and WV)…………………………………………………………..104 16: Chimney Location, 20-year Intervals (VA and WV)………………………………………105 17: Quantity Chimneys per Dwelling (VA and WV)…………………………………………..106 18: Quantity of Chimneys per Dwelling, 20-year Intervals (VA and WV)…………………….108 19: Chimney Construction Material Frequency (VA and WV)………………………………...109 20: Chimney Construction Material Frequency, 20-year Intervals (VA and WV)……………..110 21: Construction Material Frequency (OH and IN)…………………………………………….111 22: Construction Material Frequency, 20-year Intervals (OH and IN)…………………………112 vi 23: Architectural Style Frequency (OH and IN)………………………………………………..114 24: Architectural Style Frequency, 20-year Intervals (OH and IN)…………………………….117 25: Chimney Location (OH and IN)……………………………………………………………123 26: Chimney Location, 20-year Intervals (OH and IN)………………………………………...124 27: Quantity Chimneys per Dwelling (OH and IN)…………………………………………….125 28: Quantity of Chimneys per Dwelling, 20-year Intervals (OH and IN)……………………...126 29: Chimney Construction Material Frequency (OH and IN)………………………………….127 30: Chimney Construction Material Frequency, 20-year Intervals (OH and IN)………………127 31: The Clemens farmhouse and English barn………………………………………………...140 vii List of Tables 1: The James Clemens household as recorded on the 1830 federal population census………….34 2: The James Clemens household as recorded on the 1840 federal population census………….35 3: Descriptions of architectural styles identified in Virginia and West Virginia………………...72 4: Descriptions of architectural styles identified in Ohio and Indiana…………………………...79 5: Frequency of Architectural Styles among Buildings Materials (VA and WV, entire sample) ........................................................................................................................................................97 6: Frequency of Architectural Styles among Buildings Materials (VA and WV, 1750-1770)…..97 7: Frequency of Architectural Styles among Buildings Materials (VA and WV, 1771-1790)…..98 8: Frequency of Architectural Styles among Buildings Materials (VA and WV, 1791-1810)…..98 9: Frequency of Architectural Styles among Buildings Materials (VA and WV, 1811-1830)…..99 10: Frequency of Architectural Styles among Buildings Materials (VA and WV, inconclusive) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………99 11: Frequency of Building Materials among Architectural Styles (VA and WV, entire sample) …………………………………………………………………………………………………..100 12: Frequency of Building Materials among Architectural Styles (VA and WV, 1750-1770)...100 13: Frequency of Building Materials among Architectural Styles (VA and WV, 1771-1790)...101 14: Frequency of Building Materials among Architectural Styles (VA and WV, 1791-1810)...101 15: Frequency of Building Materials among Architectural Styles (VA and WV, 1811-1830)...102 16: Frequency of Building Materials among Architectural Styles (VA and WV, inconclusive) …………………………………………………………………………………………………..102 17: Frequency of Architectural Styles among Architectural Styles (OH and IN, entire sample) …………………………………………………………………………………………………..117 viii 18: Frequency of Architectural Styles among Architectural Styles (OH and IN, 1810-1830)…118 19: Frequency of Architectural Styles among Architectural Styles (OH and IN, 1831-1850)…119 20: Frequency of Architectural Styles among Architectural Styles (OH and IN, 1851-1870)…119 21: Frequency of Architectural Styles among Architectural Styles (OH and IN, 1871-1890)…120 22: Frequency of Building Materials among Architectural Styles (OH and IN, entire sample) …………………………………………………………………………………………………..120 23: Frequency of Building Materials among Architectural Styles (OH and IN, 1810-1830)…..121 24: Frequency of Building Materials among Architectural Styles (OH and IN, 1831-1850)…..121 25: Frequency of Building Materials among Architectural Styles (OH and IN, 1851-1870)…..121 26: Frequency of Building Materials among Architectural Styles (OH and IN, 1871-1890)…..122 ix Acknowledgments My first thanks go to the Ball State Department of Anthropology. I am honored to have been a part of this department and to have crossed paths with the wonderful individuals within it. Of course, I thank my committee for their excellent guidance throughout this endeavor. Thank you, Dr. Groover, for helping me to find this topic and guiding me through exploring all it had to offer. I did not think I would be able to study Virginia while living in Indiana, but you helped me make that connection. Further, thank you for always being positive and reminding me that taking time for myself is an important part of the process. To Drs. Erickson and Murray, I say thank you for your perspectives that helped me to reframe my thinking and work to present my research in the best way possible. An important part of research is where that research takes place, and I also want to thank the staff