View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Carolina Digital Repository Black Politics in the Age of Jim Crow Memphis, Tennessee, 1865 to 1954 Elizabeth Gritter A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History. Chapel Hill 2010 Approved by: Jacquelyn Dowd Hall W. Fitzhugh Brundage William R. Ferris Genna Rae McNeil Larry J. Griffin Copyright 2010 Elizabeth Gritter ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii Abstract ELIZABETH GRITTER: Black Politics in the Age of Jim Crow: Memphis, Tennessee, 1865 to 1954 (Under the direction of Jacquelyn Dowd Hall) Because the vast majority of black southerners were disenfranchised, most historians have ignored those who engaged in formal political activities from the late nineteenth century through the 1950s. This study is the first to focus on their efforts during this time. In contrast to narratives of the Jim Crow era that portray southern blacks as having little influence on electoral and party politics, this dissertation reveals that they had a significant impact. Using Memphis as a case study, it explores how black men and women maneuvered for political access and negotiated with white elites, especially with machine boss Edward H. Crump. It focuses in particular on Robert R. Church, Jr., who interacted with Crump, mobilized black Memphians, and emerged as the country’s most prominent black Republican in the 1920s. Church and other black Republicans carved out a space for themselves in party politics and opened up doors for blacks in the process. This study argues that formal black political mobilization constituted a major prong of the black freedom struggle during the Jim Crow era in the South. In the face of the segregation, disfranchisement, violence, and economic exploitation in the region, a small but significant number of black southerners used politics to fight these injustices. They secured improved public services and other benefits that improved their living conditions as well as achieved leadership positions that challenged stereotypes of black inferiority. They not only iii ensured that the Republican Party allowed their political participation and took stands for black civil rights, but they also helped change the Democratic Party from a party that embraced white supremacy to one that pushed for civil rights. This study concludes that the political activities of black southerners ultimately helped end legal segregation and laid the groundwork for the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of black voters and black public officials in the South and eventually the election of the nation’s first black president. iv Acknowledgements It is appropriate to begin by thanking my dissertation committee. My appreciation especially goes to my advisor, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, for all the time and intellectual energy that she poured into shaping this dissertation. A remarkably gifted writer and editor, she generously provided a wealth of perceptive comments, writing suggestions, and excellent ideas that all served to immeasurably improve this work, mold me into a better historian, and make this project more enriching and enjoyable. I am blessed to have had such a dedicated, gracious, and exceptional advisor from the start of my graduate career to its very end. I thank her for opening doors for me and believing in me. W. Fitzhugh Brundage served as the second reader for this dissertation. He suggested that I focus on black politics in the first place, and this work bears his imprint as well. Throughout my graduate career, he always generously provided me with excellent ideas for my work, and the papers that I did for his seminars helped me further my research. I also thank him for his support, help, and confidence in me during my graduate school journey. William R. Ferris’s unwavering enthusiasm and support served to make this dissertation project and my graduate career more pleasurable. His suggestions enhanced this dissertation, especially his advice to incorporate cultural details and engaging quotes. I also thank his assistant, Dana DiMaio, for his help. Larry J. Griffin and Genna Rae McNeil served as the other two committee members. My conversations with them, their comments on my work, and their enthusiasm for this subject all forwarded this dissertation. v A number of other people helped shape this dissertation. David Godshalk generously offered to serve as an outside reader. He reviewed drafts of all five chapters and provided me with an abundance of suggestions. The many that I utilized significantly improved the writing and analysis of this work. He also shared his own scholarship with me and provided me with constructive comments after my conference presentation on the 1959 election in Memphis at the 2006 Southern Association for Women Historians meeting. My mom, Ruth Gritter, and aunt, Cynthia Gargagliano, served as the chief proofreaders for this dissertation, and I thank them for their diligence. They provided me with thoughtful comments to improve the writing and analysis as well as carefully examined drafts for typos and grammatical errors. In fine-tuning this work, they made it a better product. My mom, in particular, reviewed chapters. In addition, my friends Jennifer L. Stair, Meredith Peck, and Kim Hill generously proofread parts of this dissertation and did an excellent job as well. I especially appreciate that Jen and Meredith each reviewed a chapter. I also thank everyone for their overall support and enthusiasm for this project. Nearly all my archival research in Memphis was done in the Memphis-Shelby County Room of the Memphis-Shelby County Public Library and Information Center and in the Special Collections Department of the University of Memphis Library. The resources and research assistance are exceptional at both places, and I express my appreciation to the staff. At the Memphis Public Library, G. Wayne Dowdy, the leading expert on the history of local politics and the curator of the Memphis-Shelby County Room, always answered any questions that I had over the course of my project, and the insights and information that he shared with me helped give me a roadmap of what topics to explore. I also especially appreciated the enthusiasm, support, and research assistance of Jim Johnson, Patricia vi LaPointe, and Marilyn Umfress. At the University of Memphis, Edwin G. Frank, Sharon Banker, Christopher Ratliff, and Jim Montague not only provided me with excellent assistance in general but also went above and beyond the call of duty in compassionately helping me out when I ran into some research difficulties. I particularly thank the curator, Ed Frank, for answering all my queries, leading me to important collections, and being supportive of my work in a kind and encouraging manner over the years. In Memphis, I was also blessed to benefit from the generosity and friendship of a number of local people. First of all, Susan B. Dynerman, a friend from my Washington D.C. days, generously let me stay in her home for two months in 2004 and five-and-a-half weeks in 2007 while I conducted oral histories and collected archival research for this project. She drove me to oral history appointments and provided good insights into my work. I enjoyed re-connecting with her son, the creative and talented Max Dynerman, as well. In addition, I thank Susan for interesting me in examining Memphis in the first place and enabling me to take my first research trip there in 2000. During that visit, Calvin Turley drove me to oral history appointments, helped me conduct an oral history of Vasco Smith, and provided accommodations. His cotton museum downtown is well worth a visit. Calvin provided good company during that trip as well as my subsequent visits to Memphis and so did Henry and Lynne Turley, who were generous enough to converse with me about civil rights and politics in the city. In addition, Beauty Macklin and the late Cordelia Turley were unforgettably kind during my 2000 visit. James B. Jalenak sent me a copy of his outstanding 1961 senior thesis on Beale Street politics, and it was a great pleasure to have lunch with him during my 2004 trip to Memphis. Finally, I immensely thank Terry Thompson, a talented researcher and vii photographer, who generously provided me with outstanding research assistance during my 2007 visit to Memphis. Faculty and students of the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill History Department also contributed to making my dissertation project and graduate career more enriching and enjoyable. My dissertation benefited from the input of Professors William L. Barney, John Sweet, Donald J. Raleigh, Roger Lotchin, Kathleen DuVal, and Lloyd Kramer. I particularly remembered Professor Kramer’s advice to think about what the subjects of my dissertation would say to me about my portrait of them. In addition, a number of people made the graduate school journey easier through their support and kindness. Those who particularly come to mind are Professor John Kasson and graduate students Josh Davis, Georgina Gajewski, Matt Harper, Kimberly Hill, Mike Huner, Cecelia Moore, Katie Otis, Aidan J. Smith, and Tomoko Yagyu. I also thank Tomoko for her advice to focus on primary sources. In one way or another, graduate students Bruce Baker, Barbara Hahn, Kerry Taylor, David Sehat, Brian Turner, Catherine Conner, Ken Zogry, Matthew Lubin, and Sarah Barksdale were supportive of this project and/or my graduate career. Finally, the History Department allowed me to present a paper at its research colloquium for graduate students, and Professor Genna Rae McNeil delivered excellent comments. In particular, I thank UNC-Chapel Hill history graduate students Hilary N. Green and Dwana Waugh.