– 1 – Order of Magnitude Astrophysics - a.k.a. Astronomy 111 Stars A star is a massive, luminous ball of plasma held together by gravity. The Existence of Stars To take into account both thermal and quantum degenerate contributions, we take the matter pressure to be P ≈ nkBT + n"F, which is a simple interpolation between the two limits. This 2 2=3 1=3 pressure can balance the gravitational pressure if (kBT + "F) ≈ GmpN n . Using expression for "F for non-relativistic electrons, we get 2 2=3 2 2 2=3 1=3 (3π ) ~ 2=3 kBT ≈ GmpN n − n : (1) 2 me For a classical system, the first term on the right hand side dominates, and we see that the gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy corresponding to the temperature T are comparable; this is merely a restatement of the virial theorem. As the radius of the system R is reduced, the second term on the right-hand side (/ n2=3) grows faster than the first (/ n1=3) and the temperature of the system will increase, reach maximum and decrease again; equilibrium is possible for any of these values with gravity balanced by thermal and degeneracy pressure. The maximum temperature Tmax is reached when n = nc, with ! α N2=3 n G c 2 2=3 ; (2) (3π ) oe α2 k T ≈ G N4=3m c2 (3) B max 2(3π2)2=3 e 2 where oe ≡ ~=(mec) and αG ≡ Gmp=(~c). – 2 – An interesting phenomenon arises if the maximum temperature Tmax is sufficiently high to trigger nuclear fusion in the system; then we obtain a gravitationally bound, self-sustained nuclear reactor. The condition for triggering nuclear reaction occurs at energy scales higher than 2 2 "nucl ≈ ηα mpc , with η ≈ 0:1. The energy corresponding to kBTmax will be larger than "nucl when !3=4 !3=2 mp α N > (2η)3=4(3π2)1=2 ≈ 4 × 1056 (4) me αG for η = 0:1. The corresponding condition on mass is M > M∗, where !3=4 !3=2 3=4 2 1=2 mp α 32 M∗ > (2η) (3π ) mp ≈ 4 × 10 g; (5) me αG which is comparable to the mass of the smallest stars observed in our Universe. The H-R Diagram Once reactions occur at the hot central region of the star, its structure changes significantly. If the transport of this energy to the outer regions is through photon diffusion, then the opacity matter will play a vital role in determining the stellar structure. In particular, opacities determine the relation between the luminosity and mass of the star. A photon mean free path l = (σn)−1, 2 random walking through the plasma , will have Ncoll ≈ (R=l) collisions in traversing the radius R. This will take the time tesc ≈ (l=c)Ncoll ≈ (R=c)(R=l) for the photon to escape. The luminosity of a star L is the ration between the radiant energy content of the star Eγ and tesc. Because 4 3 2 2 3 3 2 Eγ ≈ (aT )R , where a = π kB=(15~ c ) = (π =15) ≈ 1 (in units with κB = ~ = c = 1), we find that L = (aT 4R3l=R2). For a wide class of stars, we may assume that the central temperature T ≈ GMmp=R is reasonably constant because of nuclear reactions – which depend strongly on T – act as a thermostat. If Thomson scattering dominates, then σ = σT , and we get !3 aT 4R G4 M L ≈ ≈ m5 m2 M3 ≈ 34 −1: 2 p e 10 erg s (6) nσT α M∗ 2 4 It is convenient to define the surface temperature Ts of the star by the relation L / R Ts , so that 1=4 −1=2 1=4 −1=2 1=3 1=12 Ts / L R / L M . Combining this result with the relation M / L , we get Ts / L . – 3 – When the stars are plotted in a log Ts – log L plane we thus expect them to lie within a line with slope (1=12) ≈ 0:08. The observed slope is ∼ 0:13. We saw above that stars are gravitationally bound systems in which self-sustaining nuclear reactions are taking place in the center. The process of combining four protons into 2 a helium nuclei releases ∼ 0:03mpc of energy, which is ∼ 0:7% of the original energy, 2 4mpc . Assuming that a fraction ≈ 0:01 of the rest-mass energy can be made available for nuclear reactions, we find that the lifetime of the nuclear burning phase of the star will be 9 −2 tstar = M=L ≈ 3 × 10 yr(=0:01)(M=M∗) if the opacity is due to Thomson scattering. This defines the characteristic time scale in stars..