The Salvation Army and the Social Gospel: Reconciling evangelical intent and social concern Jason Davies-Kildea Dip.Miss., B.Theol., M.Theol., M.Soc.Sci A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Monash University in 2017 2 Copyright notice © Jason Davies-Kildea (2017). I certify that I have made all reasonable efforts to secure copyright permissions for third- party content included in this thesis and have not knowingly added copyright content to my work without the owner's permission. 3 Abstract The Salvation Army is one of the best-known community organisations in Australia and is highly respected for its service to those in need – at the frontlines of natural disasters, housing the homeless and lending a helping hand to struggling families. What is less well known to those outside the movement is that The Salvation Army is a Christian church. Unlike the general public, the members of this church, who are called Salvationists, see their primary purpose through the lens of evangelical Christianity. All Salvationists are involved in church activities but only a much smaller proportion take part in the Army’s social work. A series of interviews with Salvation Army officers undertaken for this research revealed that the organisation’s evangelical and social service arms often appear to be engaged in intraorganisational contestation, competition and conflict. Because some of the driving influences of conflict are related to wider social changes, such as increasing secularisation, they can also be seen to impact upon other churches and faith-based organisations. As their congregations diminish in size and number and their social service agencies continue to expand, many Australian churches are raising questions about organisational identity and mission. In addition to the numerous requirements and restrictions placed upon services by government contracting, the professionalisation of social work has seen the large-scale withdrawal of both religious professionals and laypeople from the frontlines of service delivery. The changing face of their social ministries has left churches wondering about what is left of their spiritual mission and what role they are now meant to play in society. This research explores intraorganisational conflict within The Salvation Army in order to better understand what it is about, how it manifests and what drives it. Many of these conflictual dynamics are rooted in tensions that are as old as The Salvation Army itself, while others seem to have emerged more clearly in recent decades. They are embodied in the lives of Salvationists, staff and other organisational supporters, such as volunteers and donors. It will be seen that these tensions are continually realised through practices, policies and organisational discourse. However, most of those involved in these struggles recognise that, as problematic as this relationship can sometimes be, The Salvation Army’s historic identity requires both evangelical and social work elements to coexist. Can these tensions be resolved or are they a natural part of organisational life? 4 Declaration This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at any university or equivalent institution and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, this thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis. Signature:……. ……. Print Name: ….JASON DAVIES-KILDEA………….……. Date: ………….Friday, 11 August 2017…………………. 5 Acknowledgements Thanks to Julian Millie, Gary Bouma and Andrew Singleton for supervisory guidance along the PhD journey. Special thanks to those friends and colleagues that offered feedback, advice and encouragement along the way, with particular mentions to Donald Burke, Harold Hill and Barry Gittins. My sincere gratitude also goes to each of the Salvation Army officers that directly participated in interviews for this research. Finally, to my family, Michelle, Madelaine and Courtney Davies-Kildea for your forbearance in those many hours in which I locked myself up in the office at home – thank you. 6 Table of Contents Glossary of Salvation Army terms ........................................................................................ 9 CHAPTER ONE: DEFINING THE PROBLEM Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 11 Questioning identity and mission ....................................................................................... 13 The bigger picture: Faith-based organisations and the welfare state ................................ 17 What’s distinct about The Salvation Army? ........................................................................ 18 The way forward: Exploring the evidence .......................................................................... 23 CHAPTER TWO: HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXT Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 27 The first generations (1865-1929)...................................................................................... 27 Consolidation and challenge: Turning inwards................................................................... 34 Organisational introspection .............................................................................................. 41 Organisational analyses .................................................................................................... 43 The contemporary Australian landscape for FBOs ............................................................ 45 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 49 CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 51 Denominations as dual structures...................................................................................... 51 Theoretical Perspective 1: Religious groups for and against society .................................. 54 Theoretical Perspective 2: Internal secularisation .............................................................. 60 Theoretical Perspective 3: What counts as religious? ........................................................ 62 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 65 CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 67 Methods ............................................................................................................................ 67 Ethical considerations ........................................................................................................ 70 Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 70 Research bias and reflexivity ............................................................................................. 71 Scholarly critique ............................................................................................................... 72 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 73 CHAPTER FIVE: VARYING OPINIONS ABOUT MISSIONAL IDENTITY Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 74 A continuum of perspectives on missional intent ............................................................... 75 A scale measuring secularisation ...................................................................................... 88 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 89 7 CHAPTER SIX: TWO MISSIONS - SEPARATE BUT NOT EQUAL Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 91 Separate entities, separate missions ................................................................................. 92 The expertise gap .............................................................................................................. 94 Employment in the Christian mission ................................................................................. 99 The battle to belong ......................................................................................................... 103 Measuring what matters most.......................................................................................... 108 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 110 CHAPTER SEVEN: MARKING BOUNDARIES WITH THEOLOGY Introduction: The role of theology in social change .......................................................... 112 How important is theology? ............................................................................................. 114 Removing theology - The secularisation of The Salvation Army ..................................... 116 Crossing the line of salvation ..........................................................................................