A COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION OF THE STATE-TO-STATE CHANGES IN RAPE LAWS IN THE UNITED STATES by JENNIFER MCMAHON (Under the Direction of Jody Clay-Warner) ABSTRACT In this study, I use event history analyses to examine the spread of rape law reforms in the United States between 1970 and 2006. Specifically, I investigate the adoption of the following rape law reforms: 1) creating gender-neutral rape laws, 2) eliminating the resistance requirement, 3) redefining rape as sexual assault, and 4) passing a strong rape shield law. The main purpose of my research is to advance our theoretical understanding of the law formation process. Using conflict theory, political opportunity theory, and the diffusion framework to guide my analyses, I examine the following: 1) how state characteristics (i.e., the percent of women in the state legislature, having a liberal government ideology, the rate of reported rapes) and the interstate process of diffusion affect a state’s likelihood of passing each rape law reform; 2) if the same social factors and processes that significantly affect the adoption of non-controversial rape law reforms also affect the adoption of controversial rape law reforms; 3) how the prior adoption of partial rape law reforms affects a state’s likelihood of passing a stronger version of each rape law reform; and 4) how the adoption of other rape law reforms affects the adoption of each rape law reform. My analyses produced several important findings. First, the results indicate that women’s economic power is significantly related to a state’s passage of rape law reforms and that being in close proximity to other states that adopted the rape law reform significantly decreases a state’s likelihood of passing that particular rape law reform. Importantly, these findings are similar for both the controversial and non-controversial rape law reforms. On the other hand, the prior adoption of a weaker, partial rape law reform significantly decreases a state’s likelihood of passing the stronger version of the reform only for the two more controversial rape law reforms. Finally, although the prior adoption of other rape law reforms does not affect a state’s likelihood of passing each of the rape law reforms, there are significant associations between the different rape law reforms adopted during the same legislative session. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. INDEX WORDS: Rape law reforms, Legal change, Controversial law reforms, Gender equality, Diffusion A COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION OF THE STATE-TO-STATE CHANGES IN RAPE LAWS IN THE UNITED STATES by JENNIFER MCMAHON B.S., The University of Georgia, 2000 A.B., The University of Georgia, 2000 M.A., The University of Georgia, 2005 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ATHENS, GA 2009 © 2009 Jennifer McMahon All Rights Reserved A COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION OF THE STATE-TO-STATE CHANGES IN RAPE LAWS IN THE UNITED STATES by JENNIFER MCMAHON Major Professor: Jody Clay-Warner Committee: Tom McNulty Linda Renzulli Ron Simons Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia August 2009 DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my family. Thank you for your constant love and support. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge and thank several individuals who provided me with invaluable guidance, support, and encouragement throughout this process. First and foremost, I would like to thank my major professor, Dr. Jody Clay-Warner, for helping me develop into a confident and productive scholar. I am incredibly grateful for the countless hours she dedicated to mentoring me throughout my graduate career. I would also like to extend my gratitude to my committee members, Drs. Thomas McNulty, Linda Renzulli, and Ronald Simons, for sharing their wisdom and providing helpful comments. Their guidance on this project and throughout my graduate studies has enabled me to develop and refine my research skills. My deepest thanks and appreciation go to my parents and sisters as well as to my loving husband and daughter. The constant love, support, and encouragement of my family helped me meet the many demands and challenges that I faced throughout graduate school. I would like to thank all of them for bringing so much joy into my life. Additionally, I would like to acknowledge several organizations that provided funding and/or assistance for this project. Specifically, this research was supported by the National Science Foundation Dissertation Improvement Grant #0820649, the American Association of University Women Dissertation Fellowship, and the Verizon/Hopeline Research Fellowship. Also, I would like to thank the National Organization for Women (NOW) for granting me permission to access and utilize their membership data. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1 Purpose of the Present Study .................................................................................. 3 Research Questions ................................................................................................ 3 Importance and Contributions of the Present Study ................................................ 6 2 HISTORY OF RAPE LAWS ............................................................................... 14 Rape as a Property Crime .................................................................................... 15 Elements of the Original Legal Definition of Rape .............................................. 17 Evidentiary Rules and Requirement .................................................................... 18 English Common Law and Rape Laws in the United States ................................. 23 3 RAPE LAW REFORMS ...................................................................................... 31 Emergence of the Rape Law Reform Movement ................................................. 32 Goals of the Rape Law Reform Movement.......................................................... 35 Success of the Rape Law Reform Efforts ............................................................ 40 Summary of Success of the Rape Law Reform Movement .................................. 54 4 PREVIOUS RESEARCH .................................................................................... 56 Research on the Adoption of Rape Law Reforms ................................................ 56 vi Predictors of the Adoption of Law Protecting the Rights of Women .................... 67 Summary of Previous Research ........................................................................... 70 5 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES ................................... 72 Overview of Theoretical Perspectives ................................................................. 72 Conflict Theory ................................................................................................... 74 Political Opportunity Theory ............................................................................... 77 The Diffusion Framework ................................................................................... 80 Using Conflict Theory, Political Opportunity Theory, and the Diffusion Framework Together ........................................................................................... 83 Advancing Theories of Legal Change ................................................................. 92 Summary of the Theoretical Perspectives and the Contributions of the Present Study ...................................................................................................... 98 6 METHODS ........................................................................................................ 102 Data .................................................................................................................. 102 Dependent Variables ......................................................................................... 103 Independent Variables ....................................................................................... 106 Analytic Strategy .............................................................................................. 115 Descriptive Statistics ......................................................................................... 117 7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: DIFFUSION OF RAPE LAW REFORMS ..... 131 Results for the Adoption of Multiple Rape Law Reforms ................................... 132 Explaining the Adoption of Multiple Rape Law Reforms ................................... 136 Comparing the Adoption of Non-Controversial and Controversial Rape Law Reforms ..................................................................................................... 145 vii Summary of Findings ......................................................................................... 150 Limitations ......................................................................................................... 151 8 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: THE EFFECTS OF PARTIAL REFORMS .... 156 Descriptive Statistics on Prior Partial Reforms