An Analysis of the Legality of Maritime Blockade in the Context of Twenty-First Century Humanitarian Law By Phillip Jeffrey Drew A thesis submitted to the Graduate Program in Law In conformity with the requirements for the Degree of Master of Laws Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada March 2012 Copyright © Phillip J. Drew, 2012 Abstract The law of Blockade is derived from customary law that developed during the height of eighteenth and nineteenth century naval warfare. As a method of warfare that has the goal of crippling an adversary’s economy, blockade can devastate not only the military apparatus of a country, but the civilian population as well. In this manner, it is a method of warfare that cannot distinguish in its effects between civilians and military objectives. The existing IHL framework governing blockade does not provide satisfactory protections to the civilian populations of affected states. Starvation, malnutrition and disease are the consequential effects of a lengthy and effective blockade. A new approach to the law of blockade is required, one that will codify contemporary practice and obligate those engaging in blockade operations to ensure that humanitarian relief cannot be denied to affected civilian populations. i Acknowledgements The completion of this thesis has required the support and assistance of a number of people, most specifically my wife Christa, who has provided me with love, support and sage advice throughout. I would also like to thank to my thesis supervisor, Professor Sharryn Aiken, who guided me through the process of completing this work, and my colleague, Professor Rob McLaughlin of the Australian National University, whose good counsel and advice was very much appreciated. ii Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... iii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1 A. The Problem With Blockade ......................................................................................... 1 B. Outline of Argument .................................................................................................... 2 CHAPTER 2: BLOCKADE............................................................................................ 7 A. Defining Blockade ......................................................................................................... 7 B. The Law of Blockade ..................................................................................................... 8 C. The Law of Neutrality .................................................................................................. 10 D. The Development of the Law of Blockade ................................................................. 13 E. Attempts to Codify the Law of Blockade ................................................................... 14 F. Practice in the Twentieth Century ............................................................................. 18 CHAPTER 3: WINNING WITHOUT KILLING? THE HUMANITARIAN EFFECTS OF BLOCKADE ......................................................................................... 26 A. The Blockade of Germany: 1914-1919 ....................................................................... 27 B. The Blockade of Iraq: 1990-2003 ............................................................................... 32 C. The Gaza Blockade: 2007- Present ............................................................................ 35 D. Summary .................................................................................................................... 39 CHAPTER 4: INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW ..................................... 41 A. Introduction to IHL...................................................................................................... 41 B. The Main Principles of IHL .......................................................................................... 46 C. The Meaning of “Attack” ............................................................................................ 52 D. Proportionality and Blockade ..................................................................................... 66 E. Starvation and the Law of Blockade ........................................................................... 71 F. Attempts to Address the Humanitarian Impact of Blockade ...................................... 78 CHAPTER 5: INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW ...................................... 83 iii A. Extraterritorial Application of IHRL ............................................................................ 84 B. The Extent of Positive IHRL Obligations in Cases of Extraterritorial Jurisdiction ....... 89 C. IHRL and Blockade ...................................................................................................... 91 CHAPTER 6: CONFRONTING THE HUMANITARIAN CHALLENGES OF BLOCKADE ................................................................................................................ 100 A. Recommended Approaches ..................................................................................... 102 B. A Role for the Security Council ................................................................................. 105 C. A Role for States........................................................................................................ 107 D. A Suggested Model for Humanitarian Assistance in Blockade ................................ 108 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION ................................................................................... 112 BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................ 114 iv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION A. The Problem With Blockade These old rules of blockade still exist, but...they only define those rights and duties in a particular set of circumstances and, as International Law is a living organization which must grow and extend and be applied [accordingly] as new circumstances and new methods come into existence, in the same way as do other improvements in civilization and science; similarly, in the region of the rules of blockade...must also the growth and extension of International Law be provided for.1 In the law of naval warfare, few if any issues are as legally and morally contentious as that of the practice of blockade. Derived primarily from principles that emerged during eighteenth and nineteenth century conflicts, blockade is a method of warfare governed solely by customary international law. Considered by some to be an archaic form of warfare unsuitable for use in the post-modern conflict paradigm, it is subject to criticism both for its impact on international commerce and, more importantly, the devastating effects that it can have on the civilian population of a blockaded state. One of the primary concerns of many critics of blockade is the fact that in any campaign designed to cause the collapse of an economy, the consequential effects of the operation cannot be limited, nor can they be accurately predicted. Insofar as a lengthy blockade has the potential to destroy a nation’s ability to produce or import foodstuffs, it can cause an entire population to suffer from malnourishment and related diseases, and starvation. 1 George I. Phillips, Economic Blockade (1920) 36 LQ Rev 227 at 231. 1 For a variety of reasons the current framework of International Humanitarian Law (IHL) contains no steadfast protections for civilians faced with starvation resulting from naval blockade. Although several attempts have been made to reduce the impact of blockade on civilians, a dearth of protection exists. B. Outline of Argument This thesis is about the lawfulness of naval blockade operations in contemporary armed conflict. Through examination of the development of the law and practice of blockade since the mid-nineteenth century, I will demonstrate that effective long-term blockades, when implemented in accordance with existing interpretations of the law of blockade, can and do have disastrous consequences to the civilian population of a blockaded state. The principal theory of this paper is that the existing customary international law framework for blockade does not meet the requirements of distinction under international humanitarian law. As a result blockade, in its current form, is unlawful. The premise of this contention is based on the fact that when the complete strangulation of an enemy’s economy is the goal of a military operation, there is no way in which the objective can be achieved without directly and adversely affecting the civilian population. That is to say, a complete and effective blockade of a state can no more distinguish between military objectives and civilians than can a nuclear weapon detonated over a city. In keeping with the notion that blockade is an indiscriminate method of warfare, I contend that civilian deaths caused by starvation, malnutrition or disease resulting from a blockade, constitute arbitrary deprivation of life. In making this point, I will argue that the 2 proportionality test, as outlined in article 57 of The First Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of