University of Dundee DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Evaluation of Cement and other Constituents in Historically-Significant Concrete Structures in Scotland Wilkie, Simeon Award date: 2018 Link to publication General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 24. Sep. 2021 EVALUATION OF CEMENT AND OTHER CONSTITUENTS IN HISTORICALLY- SIGNIFICANT CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN SCOTLAND Simeon Wilkie A Thesis presented in application for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Dundee, Scotland, U.K. April 2018 Evaluation of cements and other constituents in historically-significant concrete structures in Scotland S. Wilkie CONTENTS CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................... i FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... v TABLES ........................................................................................................................... x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... xv DECLARATION ........................................................................................................... xvi CERTIFICATION ........................................................................................................ xvii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ xviii 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1 PROJECT BACKGROUND ............................................................................. 1 PROJECT AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ............................................................. 2 THESIS OUTLINE AND SCOPE OF STUDY ................................................ 3 1.3.1 Chapter 2: Literature Review ..................................................................... 3 1.3.2 Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................. 3 1.3.3 Chapter 4: Control Study ............................................................................ 3 1.3.4 Chapter 5: Review of Historic Test Data.................................................... 4 1.3.5 Chapter 6: Historic Sample Study .............................................................. 5 1.3.6 Chapter 7: Conclusion ................................................................................ 5 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 6 HISTORIC CONCRETE DEVELOPMENTS .................................................. 6 2.1.1 Ancient Beginnings .................................................................................... 9 2.1.2 Roman Innovation .................................................................................... 10 2.1.3 The Development of Hydraulic Cements ................................................. 13 PORTLAND CEMENT CHEMISTRY ........................................................... 18 2.2.1 Hydration of Portland Cement .................................................................. 19 2.2.2 Cement Manufacturing Process ................................................................ 26 2.2.3 Historic Portland Cement Composition .................................................... 29 i Evaluation of cements and other constituents in historically-significant concrete structures in Scotland S. Wilkie 2.2.4 Introduction of Cement Standards ............................................................ 30 2.2.5 Modern Portland Cement Composition .................................................... 35 THE DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCED CONCRETE & PROPRIETARY SYSTEMS ....................................................................................................... 37 2.3.1 Pioneers of Reinforced Concrete .............................................................. 37 2.3.2 Other Proprietary Systems Used In Britain .............................................. 45 2.3.3 Changes in Design, Practice and Legislation ........................................... 46 2.3.4 Concrete Mix Design ................................................................................ 48 DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE ............................................................. 51 2.4.1 Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement ............................................................ 51 2.4.2 Design and Construction Defects ............................................................. 56 2.4.3 Chemical Degradation .............................................................................. 58 2.4.4 Environmental Damage ............................................................................ 59 METHODS OF CONCRETE REPAIR ........................................................... 63 2.5.1 Concrete Restoration ................................................................................ 65 2.5.2 Barrier and Impregnation Systems ........................................................... 65 2.5.3 Electrochemical Treatments ..................................................................... 67 2.5.4 Crack Repair ............................................................................................. 69 CHARACTERISTICS RELEVANT TO REPAIR ......................................... 71 2.6.1 Shrinkage of Concrete .............................................................................. 71 2.6.2 Creep of Concrete ..................................................................................... 76 2.6.3 Weathering................................................................................................ 77 3 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................. 78 ASSESSMENT STRATEGY .......................................................................... 78 3.1.1 Desk Study ................................................................................................ 78 3.1.2 Visual/Photographic Survey ..................................................................... 79 3.1.3 Material Testing ........................................................................................ 79 MATERIALS ................................................................................................... 81 ii Evaluation of cements and other constituents in historically-significant concrete structures in Scotland S. Wilkie 3.2.1 Historic Specimens ................................................................................... 81 3.2.2 Preparation of Control Study Specimens.................................................. 86 TEST METHODOLOGIES ............................................................................. 88 3.3.1 Density of Hardened Concrete ................................................................. 88 3.3.2 Aggregate Content .................................................................................... 88 3.3.3 Loss-on-ignition (LOI) ............................................................................. 89 3.3.4 Bulk Chemical Composition (XRF) ......................................................... 89 3.3.5 Mineralogy (XRD) ................................................................................... 90 3.3.6 Drying Shrinkage ...................................................................................... 91 3.3.7 Particle Size Distribution (Dry Sieving) ................................................... 92 3.3.8 Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP) ...................................................... 93 3.3.9 Nitrogen BET Adsorption ........................................................................ 94 3.3.10 Statistical Analysis ................................................................................... 96 4 CONTROL STUDY ................................................................................................ 99 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 99 SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM .......................................................................... 99 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................ 101 4.3.1 Mix Proportion Calculations .................................................................. 102 RESULTS ...................................................................................................... 109 4.4.1 Mix Proportions ...................................................................................... 109 4.4.2 Porosity ..................................................................................................