1 War in the ‘Cradle of Civilization’: British Perceptions of Mesopotamia, 1907- 1921 Nadia H. Atia Submitted for PhD Examination Queen Mary, University of London May 2010 2 Abstract Drawing on a wide variety of historical and literary sources, this thesis argues that the First World War transformed British perceptions of Mesopotamia, distancing it from long-established associations with myth, antiquity and fable and relating it instead to Britain’s wartime experiences and potential post-war choices. The first chapter examines pre-war perceptions of Mesopotamia. Through an analysis of British travel writing and journalism from the years 1907-1914, it locates early twentieth-century British perceptions of Mesopotamia within the well-established tradition of travel to, and writing about, Arabia. Focusing on accounts of the siege of Kut (December 1915 - April 1916) – one of the defining episodes of the Mesopotamian campaign – the second chapter explores the impact of the first two years of the war on British perceptions of Mesopotamia. In particular, this chapter asks what role discourses of race and civilization played in shaping British reactions to the ‘cradle of civilization’ and to the Indian servicemen serving alongside them. Through a close examination of the archives of the Mesopotamia Commission, Chapter Three investigates the significance of ‘British prestige in the East’ in the conduct of the Mesopotamian campaign, particularly in relation to events leading to the siege of Kut. In order to push north to Baghdad and beyond in the final two years of the war, British commanders built an infrastructure that transformed Mesopotamia. Chapter Four looks at the impact of the modern in a region defined for many Britons by its associations with ancient or biblical sites and civilizations. The final chapter examines the years between the Armistice of Mudros and the coronation of Faisal. Looking closely at media and fictional accounts of the revolt of 1920, it traces the impact of both pre-war and wartime conceptions of Mesopotamia upon representations of the region in these pivotal years. 3 Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................... 2 Contents ................................................................................................................... 3 Illustrations .............................................................................................................. 6 Acknowledgments .................................................................................................... 7 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 8 Definitions of Mesopotamia ........................................................................................ 11 The Mesopotamian Campaign .................................................................................... 16 The Creation of Iraq ..................................................................................................... 21 Sources ........................................................................................................................ 23 1 ............................................................................................................................. 28 Mesopotamia in the British Imagination, 1907-1914 ............................................... 28 Contemporary Significance, Future Possibilities ......................................................... 29 Mesopotamia as a Relic of its Own Past ..................................................................... 38 Appropriating Mesopotamia ....................................................................................... 48 The ‘Other’ Mesopotamia ........................................................................................... 60 Mesopotamia’s Inhospitable Climate.......................................................................... 66 Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 70 4 2 ............................................................................................................................. 73 The Mesopotamian Campaign 1914-1916 ............................................................ 73 The Mesopotamian Campaign .................................................................................... 76 First impressions of Mesopotamia .............................................................................. 77 Discourses of Race and Civilization ............................................................................. 90 ‘The Arabs’ ................................................................................................................... 97 ‘The Arab’ Portrayed to British Audiences ................................................................ 106 Fictional Representations .......................................................................................... 111 The Siege of Kut ......................................................................................................... 117 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 126 3 ........................................................................................................................... 128 The Siege of Kut and its Aftermath in Britain ......................................................... 128 Media and Fictional Representations of the Siege of Kut ......................................... 130 The Mesopotamia Commission ................................................................................. 144 British Prestige in the East ......................................................................................... 148 Gallipoli ...................................................................................................................... 163 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 169 A Note on Baghdad .................................................................................................... 171 4 ........................................................................................................................... 173 5 The Mesopotamian Campaign 1916-1918.............................................................. 174 New Mythologies....................................................................................................... 176 Progress ..................................................................................................................... 182 Adventures in the East .............................................................................................. 190 De-mystifying the land of the Arabian Nights ........................................................... 197 Race ........................................................................................................................... 200 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 215 5 ........................................................................................................................... 216 From Armistice to Coronation: 1918-1921 ............................................................. 217 The Mandate for Mesopotamia ................................................................................ 220 The Revolt .................................................................................................................. 223 Fiction ........................................................................................................................ 227 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 241 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 242 Bibliography ......................................................................................................... 247 6 Illustrations Figure 1. ‘Map of North East Arabia Showing the Routes of Captain G. E. Leachman’. 13 Figure 2. Inset of ‘Map of Koweit and Surrounding Country’. ........................................ 14 Figure 3. An illustration of ‘the enchanted palace of a cursed prince’ by Edmund Dulac (1911) .............................................................................................................................. 39 Figure 4. The view from the bridge in Baghdad on which Hassan meets the Sultan, Harun al-Rashid by Edmund Dulac (1914) ...................................................................... 40 Figure 5. Sir William Willcocks’s map of ‘Lower Mesopotamia’ (1912). ........................ 58 Figure 6. Jean Leon Gérôme, View of Medinet El-Fayoum (1903) .................................. 64 Figure 7. Richard C. Carline, Siege of Kut-el-Amara Seen From the Air (1919) ............. 242 7 Acknowledgments This research was made possible by funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council, whose support I acknowledge with gratitude. My warmest thanks are due to my supervisor, Michèle Barrett. I would never have begun, or completed, this project without her encouragement and support. I would like to thank her for her incisive criticism, patience and generosity.