University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/36425 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. Conversion of African Americans to Islam: A Sociological Analysis of the Nation of Islam And Associated Groups Nun Tinaz A Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Warwick Department of Sociology February 2001 CONTENTS Page List of contents H List of tables V Abstract of Thesis VII Abbreviations VIII Acknowledgements IX Chapter One: Introduction 1.1. A Brief Historical Background of the Muslims in the United States 1 1.2. Outline of Chapters 5 1.3. The Moorish Science Temple of America (MST) 7 1.4. The History and Development of the Nation of Islam: 1930-1975 11 1.4.1. The Early Period: 1930-1952 13 1.4.1.1. Wallace D. Fard (1930-1933 /34) 13 1.4.2. Elijah Muhammad Era (1934-1975) 18 1.4.2.1. Black Identity and Creation 20 1.4.2.2. Moral and Religious Principles 21 1.4.2.3. Black Puritanism and Political Separatism 22 1.4.3. Malcolm X's Era (1952-1964) 24 1.4.4. After Malcolm X (1964-1975) 28 Chapter Two: Methodology 35 2.1. Initial Access: Problems and Dilemmas 36 2.2. Field Research Methods 41 2.3. Conducting Interviews, Taking Notes and Survey Questionnaire 45 Chapter Three: Schisms in the Nation of Islam 51 3.1. Theoretical Perspectives 51 3.2. The Schism in the Early Years of NOT 53 3.3. Schism in 1960s and 1970s 55 3.3.1. The Five Percenters 55 3.3.2. The Hanefi Sect (Mandab) 58 3.3.3. Splits and Infighting in the Early 1970s 60 3.4. The Defection and Schism of Malcolm X 63 3.4.1. Organisational Developments in the Early 1960s 63 3.4.2. Organisational and Political Economic Causes 67 3.4.3. Power Struggle and Personal Conflict 72 3.4.4. Interactional and Relational Factors 75 3.4.4.1. Internalisation of Religious Understanding 78 3.4.4.2. Rationalisation of Political and Organisational Objectives 83 3.4.5. The US Governmental Manipulations in the Schism 85 Chapter Four: Conversion or Reversion? 94 4.1. Muslims By Nature? 94 4.2. Conversion to Islam and the NOT 98 4.3 Conceptual Boundary Maintenance and Confusions 99 II Page 4.4. Theoretical Frameworks and Models of Conversion 103 4.4.1. Psychological Perspectives of Conversion 103 4.4.2. Sociological Models and Approaches of Conversion 104 4.4.2.1. The Lofland-Stark Process model 105 4.4.2.2. Activist or Seekership Models 106 4.4.2.3. Drift Model 109 4.4.2.4. Organisational Approach 110 4.4.2.5. Converts' Accounts of Conversion 111 4.4.2.6. Social or Faith Networks 112 4.5. The Multivariate approach to account for the religious experience of the NOT members 117 Chapter Five: Predisposing Factors and Demographic Variables of Old NOl's Members in Elijah Muhammad Era (1946-1975) 124 5.1. Predisposing Elements of Recruitment: Elijah Muhammad's Period 124 5.1.1. The Social Context, Socio-Spatial and Demographic Conditions of Recruitment Ground 125 5.1.2. Socio-Economic Deprivation and Frustration, and Racial Discrimination 128 5.1.3. Politico-Religious and Nationalistic Problem-Solving 135 5.1.4. Religious Disillusionment and Seekership 144 5.2. Demographic Variables of the NOT's members 151 5.2.1. Age Distribution 152 5.2.2 Gender and Marital Status 156 5.2.3. Educational levels of the members 157 5.2.4. Social Stratification and occupational status of the NOl's Members 161 5.2.5. Prior Religious and Denominational Affiliation and Religiosity 167 Chapter Six: Conversion and Alteration? The Religious Experience of the Nation of Islam Members During Elijah Muhammad's Era (1946-1975) 173 6.1. The Relevance and Applicability of Conversion, alteration and reversion 174 6.1.1. Conversion as a Search of Comfortable Identity and its Restoration 174 6.1.2. Alternation or Alteration as an extension of the existing worldviews and perspectives 177 6.1.3. Reversion as a Rediscovery and Reclaiming of a Lost and Stolen Identity and Religion 182 6.2. The NOT's Recruitment Strategies, Networks and Grounds 186 6.2.1. Recruitment Strategies and the NOT's Attractions 186 6.2.2. Recruitment Networks and Grounds and Interaction 194 6.2.3. Reactions of Parents, Family and Friends to Recruitment to the NOT 201 6.2.4. Duration of to Recruitment Period 206 6.3. Motives for Joining the NOT and Conversion 214 Chapter Seven: 'Change' or 'Fall': Developments Since 1975 225 7.1. Succession to the Throne 225 7.2. Reforms, Transformation and Universalism 229 7.3. A House Divided 234 7.4. Reconstruction, Co-existence and Reconciliation 242 III Page 7.4.1. Farrakhan, Jewish People and Media 245 7.4.2. Moving to the Mainstream: Socio-economic and Political Factors 250 7.4.2.1. Imam W. D. Mohammed's Political and Economic Policies 251 7.4.2.2. Minister L Farrakhan's Political and Economic Policies 254 Chapter Eight: Polarisation of Appeal of Islam among African American Muslims: The Followers of Imam W. D. Mohammed and Minister L. Farrakhan (1978 onwards) 266 8.1. Demographic Variables 267 8.1.1 Age Distribution 268 8.1.2. Gender and Marital Status, Race and Ethnic Background 269 8.1.3. Educational Level of Muslims 272 8.1.4. Religious and Denominational Background 273 Social and Occupational Status 8.1.5. 275 8.2. Socio-spatial and Contextual Conditions of Recruitment 277 8.2.1. Religious, Socio-economic and Racial Tensions 279 8.2.2. Social, Cultural and Political Affiliation 280 8.2.3. Religious Dissatisfaction and Seekership 285 8.2.4. Conversion Patterns and AAMs' Religious Experience 286 8.3. Recruitment Strategies, Networks and Ideologies 291 8.3.1. Recruitment Strategies 291 8.3.2. Recruitment Networks and Interaction 296 8.3.3. Motives and Reasons for Conversion 299 8.3.4. Processing Class, Ta'lim Courses, and Initiation 306 8.3.5. Reactions of Parents, Relatives and Friends 310 Chapter Nine: Conclusions 317 Bibliography 328 Glossary 351 Appendix I 353 Appendix II 359 Appendix III 360 361 Appendix IV Appendix V 363 Iv LIST OF TABLES Page Chapter Two Table 2.1. The distribution of questionnaire to the AAMs 47 Chapter Five Table 5.1. Racial composition of the neighbourhoods of members at the time they joined the NOT (1946-1975) 127 Table 5.2. Problems / tensions experienced before joining the NOl (1946-1975) 132 5.3. Table Members' involvement in Black Nationalist, political and socio-cultural organisations before joining the NOl (1946-1975) 137 Table 5.4. What did you think about the policies of Civil Rights groups? (1946-1975) 141 Table 5.5. Age distribution at the time of joining the NOT (1946-1975) 153 Table 5.6. Current age distribution of Muslims who joined the NOl in Elijah Muhammad's era (1946-1975) 155 Table 5.7. Marital Status of Members (1946-1975) 156 Table 5.8. Educational Level of Members at the time they joined the NOT (1946-1975) 158 Table 5.9. Occupational status of members at the time they joined the NOl (1946- 1975) 163 Table 5.10. Current occupational status of the old NOT' s members (1946-1975) 165 Table 5.11. Religious and denominational (sect) affilation of members at the time they joined the NOT (1946-1975) 168 Chapter Six Table.6. 1. When you joined the NOT, did you feel that there was a close connection between your existing ideas and the NOl's? (1946-1975) 179 Table 6.2. What Aspects of the NOT appealed to you? (1946-1975) 194 Table 6.3. Through which channels did you encounter and hear of the NOT and its members? (1946-1975) 197 Table 6.4. How did you become involved and interested in the teachings and programmes of the NOT? (1946-1975) 198 Table 6.5. How did your parents and members of your family respond to your- decision to become a member of the NOT? (1946-1975) 203 Table 6.6. How did your friends and colleagues react to your decision to become a member of the NOT? (1946-1975) 203 Table 6.7. How long did it take for you to join the NOT? (1946-1975) 206 Table 6.8. How long did it take for you to join the NOT? (By gender/periods) (1946- 1975) 207 Table 6.9. How long did it take for you to join the NOI? (By age distributionl periods) (1946-1975) 208 Table 6.10.How long did it take for you to join the NOT? (By educational levels /periods) (1946-1975) 208 V Page Table 6.11. What were your primary reasons and motives for joining the NOl? Please give your four most important reasons (By gender, reason and period) (1946-1975) 216 Chapter Seven Figure 7.1. Historical Evolution and Schisms in the Nation of Islam (1934-1995) 235 Chapter Eight Table 8.1. Age joining (1978-2000) 268 Table 8.2. Marital status of recruits at the time of joining (1978-2000) 270 Table 8.3.