The Enlisted Composer: Samuel Barber’s Career, 1942-1945 Jeffrey Marsh Wright II A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Music. Chapel Hill 2010 Approved by: Jocelyn R. Neal Jon W. Finson Mark Katz John L. Nádas Philip Vandermeer ©2010 Jeffrey Marsh Wright II ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT JEFFREY MARSH WRIGHT II: The Enlisted Composer: Samuel Barber’s Career, 1942-1945 (Under the direction of Jocelyn R. Neal) Throughout the 1920s and 1930s Samuel Barber emerged as one of America’s premier composers. In 1942, however, the trajectory of his flourishing career was thrown into question by the United States’ entrance into World War II, and the composer’s subsequent drafting into service. Being in the army nearly placed a moratorium on his compositional activity due to the time constraints of official duty. Yet Barber responded not only by maintaining his compositional momentum in the little free time that he had, but also by proposing new projects that would make it his sole, official duty to compose works that could be of potential use to the U.S. government. This dissertation examines the implications of a free artist being placed in an official role to write music at the request of the United States government. The idea of a composer writing music for a governmental patron is a notion normally reserved for composers in the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany, but was a reality on the American front as well. Barber’s works during this period provide a lens through which to explore issues of musical propaganda, governmental patronage, genre expectations, and the construction of “authentically” American art forms. Throughout the war, Barber struggled to maintain his artistic integrity in the face of conflicting governmental expectations for his music and endeavored to compose works that would transcend their position in time iii and space to thrive in a post-War society. He was also confronted with supporting a military branch that had recently begun to persecute and shun homosexuals actively—a situation that set a crucial aspect of his identity in conflict with his employment. This study addresses how and why, despite these conflicts, Barber emerged as a dominant personality in American art music both during and after the war. iv To Mom and Dad, whose love and support helped make this document possible v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful for the supportive academic community that has been interested in this project from its earliest stages through its completion. As all scholars know, the process of completing a major academic project is nearly impossible without the help of a wide community of people. I owe a great deal to a number of my colleagues, friends, family, and teachers—only a small portion of which I have space to thank by name. I am grateful to have had a dedicated committee of readers. Their comments, insight, and support have proved invaluable to my work. My advisor Jocelyn Neal guided me through the quagmire that is researching and shaping a dissertation. Her time, effort, and mentorship have molded me into the scholar I have become and will continue to shape my scholarly pursuits in the future. Jon Finson, Mark Katz, John Nádas, and Phil Vandermeer were generous with their time and insight; their comments have added tremendously to this project. Annegret Fauser, who was generous with her time during the early stages of my research, was always an enthusiastic sounding board, and she provided great insight into the general American soundscape during World War II. The staffs of the Library of Congress, New York Public Library, and Bolling Air Force Base Music Library were all extremely helpful and facilitated my research. I owe a special debt of gratitude to Ray White and Dee Gallo at the Library of Congress, Jonathan Hiam at the NYPL, and Joe Tersero of Bolling AFB for being particularly helpful in tracking down manuscripts and making sense of a sea of documents. vi Sincere thanks to Robert Ward for taking time to discuss his personal WWII experiences with me, and to Harry Gleeson for sharing his immense knowledge of all things musical in the Air Force. I owe a special debt of gratitude to several of my colleagues, who have helped shepherd my research along in various ways: Howard Pollack, Carol Hess, Marcie Ray, Steve Swayne, Phil Gentry, and John Spilker, to name only a few. I am thankful for the close-knit group of Barber specialists who epitomize the spirit of scholarship through the willing exchange of ideas and information. In particular I’d like to thank Stephanie Poxon and Barbara Heyman. Barbara has helped foster and support this project from its inception, and she was always willing to share her tremendous knowledge of all things Barber. Research for this dissertation was made possibly by financial assistance from the UNC graduate school and the UNC music department through a James W. Pruett Summer Research Fellowship. I also owe thanks to my graduate colleagues at UNC—Molly Breckling, Kim Francis, Will Gibbons, Alicia Levin, Allison Portnow, Chris Reali, and Karen Shadle, in particular— who were both willing to listen to me wax poetic about Barber and who helped me remain sane in the craziest stages of writing. Last, and certainly not least, my sincere appreciation goes out to my partner, Kevin Bartig, who aside from reading countless drafts and offering me practical research guidance has weathered my ups and downs and neuroses with continued love and kindness. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES...............................................................................................................x LIST OF FIGURES AND EXAMPLES.............................................................................xi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................1 In the Army Now..........................................................................................3 Gays in the Military During World War II...................................................9 A Military Music Philosophy.....................................................................12 Literature Review.......................................................................................16 Outline and Goals......................................................................................22 II. MARCHING TOWARD VICTORY: ISSUES OF GENRE, ART, AND FUNCTION IN BARBER’S COMMANDO AND FUNERAL MARCHES...............................................................................25 The March in World War II America.........................................................27 The Commando March..............................................................................37 A Dirge, But For Whom?...........................................................................47 Marching Forward.....................................................................................65 III. POLITICS OF A PROGRAM: GOVERNMENTAL PATRONAGE, CULTURAL BATTLES, AND THE SECOND SYMPHONY.............................................................................68 A Commission for a Flight Symphony.......................................................70 A Surprising Program.................................................................................80 viii Ambivalence and Irony..............................................................................85 Realization and Renunciation....................................................................92 IV. REPRESENT THE PEOPLE: FOLK TUNES, “AMERICAN” MUSIC, AND BARBER’S EXCURSIONS...............................................98 Barber, Popular Music, and the Search for an American Music........................................................................................................100 Barber and Behrend..................................................................................111 Popular Excursions, Classical Art Forms.................................................115 Early Performances and Reviews............................................................129 V. COMPOSING YOUR WAY HOME: NOSTALGIA, THE CAPRICORN CONCERTO, AND THE OWI.........................................134 Campaigning for the Next Assignment....................................................135 Capricorn Concerto as Nostalgic Longing..............................................147 Capricorn Concerto and the Historical Gaze..........................................148 Romanticizing the Past, Idealizing the “Home”......................................155 Loss and Isolation....................................................................................156 An Impossible Return..............................................................................157 VI. CONCLUSION........................................................................................163 War and Pragmatism…………………….……………………………...164 Music as Weapon.....................................................................................165 War and the Yearning for a Return to Daily Life.....................................166 War and the Flow of Time........................................................................166 REFERENCES................................................................................................................172 ix LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Samuel Barber’s World War II Compositions..............................................3