LundUniversity LundUniversityMasterofInternationalDevelopmentandManagement June2009 MEDIACULPA? NAIROBICOMMUNITYRADIOSTATIONSANDTHEPOST- ELECTIONVIOLENCE Author:HélèneMercier Supervisor:PeterGregersen “Journalismcanneverbesilent:thatisitsgreatestvirtueand itsgreatestfault.Itmustspeak,andspeakimmediately, whiletheechoesofwonder,theclaimsoftriumphandthe signsofhorrorarestillintheair.” HenryAnatoleGrunwald EditorinchiefofTimeinc.,1979-1987 ii Abstract Community radio stations are a new phenomenon in Nairobi, the capital of Kenya. While the Kenya Communications (Amendment) Act 2008 recognizes them as a media category, confusion remains around questions of ownership, funding and roles. Following the volatile post-election situation of December 2007, the government imposed a month-long live media ban. Media has been blamedbypoliticiansforinflamingpassionandtheyhavereceivedcriticismfrom media professionals for preaching peace. The study explores how the post- electionviolencehasaffectedcommunitymediapractitioner’sperceptionsoftheir roles andresponsibilities andhighlights the debateonthe universalityof media ethics. The title of this thesis, Media Culpa, is making reference to while questioningtheheavycriticismthat‘themedia’receivedduringthepost-election violence.Thewell-knownLatinphrase meaculpa, translatesintoEnglishas‘my fault’,‘myownfault’.Theanalysisshowstoalargeextentthatcommunityradio practitioners believe in the pre-eminence of the ‘Do no harm’ ethical standard overthe‘Seektruthandreportitasfullyaspossible’responsibility.Kenyanmedia specialists demandarecontextualizationof mediamorals. The studyisbuilt on questionnaire,nineteensemi-structuredinterviewsandobservationsconductedin Nairobi,betweenSeptemberandJanuary08-09.Thethesisconveysandisrelated toideaswithinthecommunitarianismtheoryandtherealistapproachappliedto newsjournalism. Keywords:Media,CommunityRadio,MediaEthics,Post-ElectionViolence,Kenya, Peace-Journalism iii Table of Contents Abstract.................................................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................vi Abbreviations/Acronyms..............................................................................................................vii Prelude...................................................................................................................................................1 1.Introduction..............................................................................................................................................2 Purpose......................................................................................................................................................3 ResearchQuestionandImportanceofResearch................................................................................3 ResearchQuestion...............................................................................................................................3 ImportanceofResearch......................................................................................................................4 ThesisStructure........................................................................................................................................5 2.ContextualSettings...................................................................................................................................5 Post-ElectionViolence............................................................................................................................5 MediainKenya.........................................................................................................................................6 CommunityRadioStationinKenya......................................................................................................7 3.Theoreticalframework.............................................................................................................................8 ResearchFrontiers&KeyConcepts.....................................................................................................8 RadioandDevelopment.....................................................................................................................8 CommunityandCommunityRadio...............................................................................................10 MediaEthics......................................................................................................................................12 Peace-journalism................................................................................................................................13 CommunitarianismTheory..................................................................................................................14 RealistApproachonNewsJournalism..............................................................................................16 4.Methodology..........................................................................................................................................18 ResearchStrategyandApproach........................................................................................................18 DefiningLocation.................................................................................................................................19 DataCollectionMethods.....................................................................................................................19 Non-participantObservation..........................................................................................................19 Questionnaire.....................................................................................................................................20 InterviewwithVolunteers................................................................................................................21 InterviewwithKey-experts..............................................................................................................22 Analysis...................................................................................................................................................22 EthicalConsiderations..........................................................................................................................23 iv Trustworthiness&Validity...................................................................................................................23 5.DataPresentationandAnalysis...........................................................................................................24 TheOperationalRealitiesoftheCommunityRadioStations.........................................................24 PamojaFM,theVoiceofKibera....................................................................................................24 GhettoFM,anAmplifiedVoicefortheVoiceless......................................................................26 KochFM,Edutainment...................................................................................................................26 Funding...............................................................................................................................................28 Training...............................................................................................................................................28 Second-classMedia...........................................................................................................................29 Questionnaire.........................................................................................................................................30 VolunteerInterviews&Expertinterviews........................................................................................32 TheirPower........................................................................................................................................33 AlternativeorNon-ProfessionalRole............................................................................................34 Self-Censorship..................................................................................................................................37 Trauma/Seekingcounseling............................................................................................................38 FurtherDiscussionPointsRaisedbyInterviewees......................................................................39 ConcludingRemarks.............................................................................................................................40 6.TheWayForward..................................................................................................................................40 DirectionsforFutureResearch...........................................................................................................40 Recommendations.................................................................................................................................41 6.References..............................................................................................................................................42 APPENDIX1:FMStationsinNairobi.............................................................................................48