University of Wisconsin Milwaukee UWM Digital Commons Theses and Dissertations May 2014 Killing Julian: the Death of an Emperor and the Religious History of the Later Roman Empire Benjamin James Rogaczewski University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.uwm.edu/etd Part of the Ancient History, Greek and Roman through Late Antiquity Commons, History Commons, and the History of Christianity Commons Recommended Citation Rogaczewski, Benjamin James, "Killing Julian: the Death of an Emperor and the Religious History of the Later Roman Empire" (2014). Theses and Dissertations. 423. https://dc.uwm.edu/etd/423 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by UWM Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of UWM Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. KILLING JULIAN: THE DEATH OF AN EMPEROR AND THE RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE by Benjamin Rogaczewski A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in History at The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee May 2014 ABSTRACT KILLING JULIAN: THE DEATH OF AN EMPEROR AND THE RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE by Benjamin Rogaczewski The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 2014 Under the Supervision of Professor Carlos Galvao-Sobrinho This thesis addresses an intriguing question concerning the death of emperor Julian, known throughout history as “the Apostate.” Although Julian ruled for less than two years, his reign and death were the center of debate for centuries. Ancient writers composed different death narratives for the last “pagan” emperor, elaborating upon certain details in the narratives and adding portions, probably fictionalized, of the story where they thought necessary. It is my view that these different death narratives were used as literary loci to discuss the growing power of the church and the relations between church and state. Analysis of these narratives, written by Gregory Nazianzus, Libanius, Ammianus Marcellinus, and the ecclesiastical historians of the fifth century (Socrates of Constantinople, Sozomen of Gaza, and Theodoret of Cyrrhus) allows the historians a more nuanced view of the religious and political history of late antiquity, specifically concerning Christianization in the empire and relations between bishop and emperor, church and state. This thesis will argue that the narratives of Julian’s death, written in the fourth and fifth centuries, were colored by these two political and religious concerns of the period. ii © Copyright by Benjamin Rogaczewski, 2014 All Rights Reserved iii For Dr. Michael Lovano of St. Norbert College, who gave me my first notes on Julian and the keys to Byzantium, and to my parents, Patricia and Gregory Rogaczewski, who encouraged me to follow the perennial path of Paideia. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Prologue: Julian the “Passing Cloud” 1 Chapter One: How the Sources Interconnect 34 Chapter Two: The Many Deaths of Emperor Julian 77 Chapter Three: Julian’s Death, a Lens into Religious History 97 Conclusion: Julian’s Reign in the History of Late Antiquity 126 Bibliography 132 Appendix A: Constantinian Dynasty 137 Appendix B: Maps 138 Appendix C: Gregory Nazianzus’s Second Invective Against Julian 141 Appendix D: Libanius’s Lament Over Julian 142 Appendix E: Libanius’s Funeral Oration Over Julian 144 Appendix F: Libanius’s Upon the Avenging of Julian 146 Appendix G: Ammianus Marcellinus’s Res Gestae 150 Appendix H: Socrates of Constantinople Church History 157 Appendix I: Sozomen of Gaza Church History 158 Appendix J: Theodoret of Cyrrhus Church History 161 v LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1: Map: Julian’s Early Life & Education 138 Fig. 2: Map: Julian as Caesar in Gaul 139 Fig. 3: Map: Julian as Emperor 140 vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people who have been with me throughout the entire thesis process that I would like to thank. First, I would like to thank my committee: Dr. Elisabetta Cova, Dr. Martha Carlin, and Dr. Carlos Galvao-Sobrinho. Without the invaluable editorial aid of this group of scholars, the thesis in your hands would not be as clear-cut as it could be. Second, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Carlos Galvao-Sobrinho. The “fireside chats” we had about the “oddball” Julian helped tremendously throughout this entire journey. I cannot thank him enough for being an incredible amico and magister. Grazie mille, Carlos. Finally, I would like to thank my family. Through all the readings and re-readings, this thesis truly is not simply the work of my hands, but that of many hands. And many thanks to Ashley, who held my hand throughout the rough editing process and endured my jabbering on about “Gregory Nazianzus this” and “Libanius that”. Thank you so much to everyone who has helped me throughout this arduous, immensely rewarding journey. Χάριν ἀποδίδωµι ὑµῖν. vii “ἔργων δὲ οὐδαµοῦ διήγησις τὸ πᾶν δυναµένη µηνῦσαι, ἀλλ᾽ ἀµυδρὰ καὶ σκιὰ καὶ συγγραφέως οὐχ ὑπηρετοῦντα στόµατι.”1 -- Libanius, Ep. 120.8. 1 But at no time have I received a fully detailed narrative of events, but a shapeless, shadowy tale, unsuited for the lips of a historian. viii 1 Prologue: Julian the “Passing Cloud” Emperor Julian, also known as “the Apostate,” remains an enigmatic figure of history. Julian is remembered mainly as the emperor who “tried to turn back the clock” and reverse what his uncle, Constantine the Great, had already set in motion, namely the state protection and promotion of Christianity. Julian sought to restore the pagan religions to their former glory by reinstating certain beneficial rights and privileges that had previously been revoked by Constantine. Even though he reigned as emperor for less than two years, from 361 to 363 CE, Julian and his reign continued to be subjects of controversy for centuries to come. Following his death, a debate arose among those writing about Julian’s life, concerning how he was to be remembered. Some wished to remember him as a persecutor, others as a reformer and philosopher. From this debate, several different perspectives on Julian and the key events in his life and reign emerged. His rejection of Christianity and conversion to paganism,2 and his failed Persian expedition were endlessly discussed. Even the manner of his death fighting against the Persians, which was told in many different versions, was a matter of contention. Why were there so many different accounts of Julian’s death? Why did these writers so insistently claim their particular versions to be the “true” account? These are some of the 2 When concerned with paganism, or the traditional Roman religions, modern historians often use the term as an “umbrella” expression referring to several cults. These cults included numerous oriental cults, such as Mithraism, local or civic cults, such as the cults of Asclepius and Magna Mater, and the imperial cult containing the pantheon of deified emperors. I have used the terms “paganism” and “traditional Roman religions” here and throughout much in the same way as other modern historians. See Mary Beard, John North, and Simon Price, Religions of Rome Vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) 371-373. 2 questions I asked as I began my study of Julian’s reign. These questions are important though because they show that these writers were not composing their accounts of Julian’s death innocently, but rather constructing narratives with a set agenda in mind. There is a definite variety among these death narratives. Some are drastically different than others, while some contain subtle, yet discernable, changes. By highlighting these differences among the narratives, and placing them in the context in which they were written, we begin to better understand the authors’ immediate concerns. I argue in this thesis that the way in which these authors constructed their individual death narratives reflects each author’s concerns, particularly with the religious changes in the Roman Empire. By the mid-fourth century, Christianity was no longer a persecuted religion, but was instead promoted and protected by the state. Paganism was certainly still present in the empire but now had to take the backseat to another powerful religion, Christianity. Following Constantine, all Roman emperors, with the exception of Julian, were Christian. Julian decided to return to paganism and enact several religious reforms to guarantee the revitalization and survival of the pagan religions. These facts made Julian’s reign and life controversial in that, had he lived longer, it is quite possible that Christianity would not have achieved the status and power it did in later times. Let us begin with a brief account of Julian’s life before we turn to the narratives of his death. 3 The Life of Julian Julian was born in Constantinople in 330 CE, during the reign of his uncle, Constantine. However, Julian was orphaned at the age of seven, as his mother had died while giving birth to him, and his father and several other members of his family were murdered after Constantine’s death in 337.3 According to some sources,4 Constantius, Constantine’s son and heir to the empire in the East, orchestrated the murders. The sources do not agree, but most say that Julian’s father, Constantine’s half-brother, planned a coup d’état against Constantine’s sons.5 The implication was that upon murdering Constantine’s sons, Julian’s father would then establish himself and his sons as Augusti and Caesars in the empire. The only two male members to survive the murders were Julian and his half-brother Gallus: the former because he was so young, and the latter because he was ill at the time and was believed to be dying.6 After the massacre of Julian’s family, Constantius, ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire, sent Julian and Gallus away from Constantinople to Nicomedia in Bithynia, placing the young princes under house arrest.7 There, under the watchful eyes of Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, Julian began his education.