HISTORY CURRICULA AND THE RECONCILIATION OF ETHNIC CONFLICT: A COLLABORATIVE PROJECT WITH BURMESE MIGRANTS AND REFUGEES IN THAILAND A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Rosalie Metro May 2011 © 2011 Rosalie Metro HISTORY CURRICULA AND THE RECONCILIATION OF ETHNIC CONFLICT: A COLLABORATIVE PROJECT WITH BURMESE MIGRANTS AND REFUGEES IN THAILAND Rosalie Metro, Ph. D. Cornell University 2011 I use ethnography, critical discourse analysis, and survey research to investigate the potential of history curricula both to foment inter-ethnic animosity and to further reconciliation in conflict- affected societies. I take Burma’s sixty-year-long civil war and ethnic conflict as a case study, conducting research in collaboration with Burmese migrants and refugees in Thailand. I also address the dynamics of international aid to education and the ethics of conducting research in this setting. This dissertation includes four distinct articles, each concerning an aspect of these issues. In the first article, I argue that Burmese history textbook discourse from the dynastic era to the present illustrates the “ethnification” of Burmese (myanma) identity and the classicization of Burman monarchies as a basis for nationalism. In the second article, I conclude that a high school curriculum based on primary source documents juxtaposed to reveal multiple perspectives has the potential to delegitimize violence and promote critical thinking. I also find that history curriculum revision workshops are most likely to function as “intergroup encounters” promoting reconciliation among participants if a) individuals from outside the “party line” mainstream of all sides are included; b) there are structures in place to ensure the participation of people of lower status; c) participants analyze the discourse of textbooks written by opposing sides in the conflict alongside primary source documents; d) participants conceptualize reconciliation and critical thinking as major purposes of teaching history; and e) parties outside the conflict fund and support, rather than directly control these efforts. In the third article, I argue that the interventions of international actors in the education of Burmese migrants and refugees constitute a process of neo-colonial “missionization” in which ideas about schooling are negotiated and hybrid subjectivities particular to post-colonial, post- conflict settings emerge. In the fourth article, I explain why the written consent process mandated for human subjects research by Institutional Review Boards was not well suited to the cross-cultural, collaborative, ethnographic education project that I conducted. I present an alternate model for ethical relations in research based on a Levinasian face-to-face consent process that cannot be preformulated or proceduralized. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH I was born and raised in the US. I became interested in Burma while earning a BA in History at Reed College, and I wrote my undergraduate thesis on colonial, nationalist, and ethno-nationalist conceptions of Shan identity. I spent six months in Thailand in 2001 working with Burmese exiles at the Student and Youth Congress of Burma, and I have returned to the Thai-Burma border regularly over the past ten years to collaborate on educational projects with organizations such as Teacher Training for Burmese Teachers and The Curriculum Project. In 2003, while earning an MA in Education from Goddard College, I wrote a thesis about the history curricula used on the Thai-Burma border by ethnic and political opposition groups. I have also taught history in secondary schools in the US. I am now a high school social studies teacher based in Columbia, Missouri, but I am involved in ongoing projects on the border, including the development of a primary source-based curriculum that I conceived while writing this dissertation. This curriculum is scheduled to be published by The Curriculum Project in 2012. Please feel free to contact me at [email protected] with feedback or questions. iii ြမန်မာြပည်က ဆရာများသုိ ့ dedicated to Burmese teachers iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS From start to finish, many people helped me to produce this dissertation. First, my wonderful committee at Cornell: my advisor, Troy Richardson, who showed me so much hospitality in his intellectual world; Magnus Fiskesjö, whose enthusiasm and bibliographical generosity are legendary; and Lindy Williams, whose reassuring presence and skillful guidance were crucial. I would also like to offer special thanks to Sayamá San San Hnin Tun for giving me a foundation in Burmese language, without which I could not have done my research. Other professors I had at Cornell, including Satya Mohanty and Sofia Villenas, also shaped the direction of my project by offering thought-provoking classes. I am grateful for the support of Cornell’s Education Department. In particular, I would like to thank Mark Constas, not only for being a great professor, but also for being an effective DGS even as the Department was in the process of closing. Rose Hulslander, our Graduate Field Assistant, was also unfailingly cheerful and knowledgeable. I thank my fellow graduate students Dan Capps, Hope Casto, Kathryn Werntz, Jess Matthews, Mariana Cruz, Meg Gardinier, Pamela Pollock, and Siv Somchanhmavong for giving me a community in the Department. It is sad to write these acknowledgements as the Department enters its final year, but I hope that in the future Cornell students will once again have the opportunity to earn degrees in this important field. Cornell’s Southeast Asia Program was incredibly supportive throughout my studies, not only by offering financial assistance, but also by providing an amazing community of area studies scholars. I want to thank Nancy Loncto and Wendy Treat for organizing everything so well, and Tamara Loos and Thak Chaloemtiarana for leading the program so skillfully (and teaching great classes). I have fond memories of my office in the Kahin Center and of the grad v students who made that space feel like home—especially those I encountered far from Ithaca, including Amanda Flaim, Daniel Ahlquist, Chika Watanabe, Inga Gruss, Jane Ferguson, Joe Pittayaporn, Trais Pearson, and Tom Patton. Cornell’s Judith Reppy Institute for Peace Studies also supported my travel and offered me a much-needed fellowship during my final year. I was lucky to participate in several conferences organized by the Institute; special thanks to Stefan Senders and Chip Gagnon for bringing me into that community. Although I did not spend much time inside Burma for my research, my experiences there were indelible. Thanks to Rhoda Linton for helping me find my way there, and to Charlie Carstens, Matt Walton, and Pat McCormick for advice once I was inside. I wish I could name the Burmese people who shared their insights about history and education with me; they have my gratitude. I could not have conducted my research in Thailand without the help of my collaborating organizations and the support and advice of many individuals. The Burmese Migrant Teacher Association (BMTA) and the Burmese Migrant Workers Education Committee (BMWEC) both supported projects in which I was involved. Thanks to the Child Development Center (CDC) School, especially Saya Mahn Shwe Hnin, for hosting several workshops. I am grateful to Drum Publications, especially Tim Moffatt and Naw Paw Say Htoo, for inviting me to facilitate a workshop for their staff. Thanks also to the Karenni Education Department (KnED) for hosting a workshop, and especially to Saya Al Khoune, whose dedication to students is inspiring. I am grateful to the National Health and Education Committee (NHEC) of Burma for their support, and especially to Saya Thein Naing and Nai Kong Lewi for their great ideas. I am fortunate to have collaborated over the years with Teacher Training for Burmese Teachers (TTBT)/Thinking vi Classroom Foundation; special thanks to Dr. Thein Lwin and Saya Hsai Lurn Kham for their advice and encouragement. I am grateful to ZOA Refugee Care Thailand, especially Penny Thame, for helping me to organize a workshop. World Education also supported projects in which I was involved; special thanks to Greg Antos for taking the time to share his insights with me, and to Má Nu Nu for helping to analyze my survey data. I would also like to thank Naw Thayu Htoo for translating some Karen texts. Additionally, I am grateful to Ko Ye Myint Kyaw of Maukkha magazine for publicizing the results of my research. Finally, over two hundred Burmese educational stakeholders participated in curriculum workshops where I gathered data; their energy and enthusiasm were crucial to this project. During my fieldwork I enjoyed guest teaching in several schools. I want to thank Sayamá Win Win Min and Sayamá Shwe Sin Win for inviting me to teach at the Burma Labor Solidarity Organization (BLSO) School. Sayamá Htet Htet Aung and Saya Aung Soe Min hosted me at Hsamutaw School. Sayamá San San and Saya Min Min at Social Action for Women (SAW) School were kind enough to invite me to teach their students and to offer a workshop for their teachers. Special thanks to my longtime friends Saya Pho Cho and Sayamá Nee Shar at Saytanar School for their hospitality and their inspirational work with children. Over the course of my fieldwork, I was lucky to have an ongoing connection with the Migrant Curriculum Team (MCT). I am grateful to the MCT members for their páráhítá in working for the community. I am especially indebted to Naw Sweet for believing in the history workshop and making it happen. I must also credit Saya Aung Khine for sharing with me the ideas that are the basis for this dissertation, and I would like to thank him for his commitment to continuing the revolution by teaching history. vii Another organization that deserves special mention is The Curriculum Project, which not only helped me organize workshops, but also supported me in innumerable other ways.