Cultural Influence on the Perception and Cognition of Musical Pulse and Meter DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Hsiang-Ning Kung Graduate Program in Music The Ohio State University 2017 Dissertation Committee: Udo Will, Advisor Eugenia Costa-Giomi Lois Rosow Copyrighted by Hsiang-Ning Kung 2017 Abstract This dissertation revisited the Western contemporary theories of pulse and meter through an embodied perspective, holding that both pulse and meter are cognitive constructs based on the internal and external interactions, with the former universally perceived and the latter more culturally dependent. Contemporary Western metrical theories are based on a hierarchical structure, with pulse as a referential unit. Developed in a literary tradition, these theories are based on abstract principles rather than actual listening experiences and are therefore inadequate in most non-Western contexts, where oral traditions dominate. By critically reviewing the interaction between culture and meter, this study attempted to find a common ground for cross-cultural discussions of meter. In a behavioral experiment, 10 loops of Turkish rhythmic patterns (representing Middle-Eastern rhythms) were presented to three groups of subjects who had listening experience with 1) Middle-Eastern music (metrically and culturally familiar group), 2) Indian music (metrically familiar but culturally unfamiliar group), and 3) no experience with music of complex meters (unfamiliar group). The participants responded to pulse and meter, respectively, in the two parts of the experiment. All rhythmic patterns were presented at two tempi—one around 120 bpm (beat per minute; human’s preferred tempo ii for pulse perception) and one in a double that tempo. The temporal difference was used as a variable to manipulate the participants’ choice of reference level when responding to the stimuli. In addition to the behavioral responses, participants gave verbal feedback about their entrainment strategy and filled out a questionnaire about their musical cultural background at the end of the experiment session. This study examined whether and to what extent bodily responses to pulse and meter are influenced by cultural factors, with the former as a natural kind of mechanism and the latter a culturally dependent ability. It inquired about the relationship between response to pulse and response to meter (proportional or dissociated), as well as the role of grouping and entrainment in metrical comprehension. The study found cultural factors to greatly influence the ability for and the tendency of grouping. The ability for responding to pulse, due to its connection with the motor system, appeared to be less affected by cultural factors. However, compared to the other two groups, the listening habit (i.e., grouping) of the “metrically and culturally familiar group” interfered with the listeners’ response to pulse, and to some extent, prevented them from tapping isochronously. The results showed no evidence of hierarchical processing in metrical perception, suggesting that what we understand as metrical perception can in fact be explained by entrainment to the surface sound sequences through gestalt grouping. iii Dedication To my Shepherd, God of the hills and valleys. To my parents, who love me unconditionally. iv Acknowledgments Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Udo Will, my advisor, for all the guidance and support over the course of my PhD study. I would not have accomplished this dissertation without him. I would also like to thank the rest of my committee, Dr. Lois Rosow and Dr. Eugenia Costa-Giomi, for their insightful comments and encouragement. My sincere thanks also go to the Musicology department at OSU, the School of Music, for its financial support and all the opportunities for me to grow as a teacher. I wish to thank the participants in the experiment for their time and patience. They made a great contribution to my research. I also thank my colleagues, especially Yong-Jeon Cheong and Steven Wilcer, for the stimulating discussions and the collaborative experience. v Thanks to my brothers and sisters in Christ, who have offered me all kinds of encouragement and food during the past few months (years, to be precise). Words cannot express my gratitude for their care for me. Thanks to Sabrina L. for her editorial advice. I have learned a lot from her. Lastly, I would like to thank my parents’ continuing love and support throughout my PhD journey. vi Vita 2005................................................................B. A. Soochow University, Taipei, Taiwan 2008................................................................M. M. Manhattan School of Music 2010 to 2012 ..................................................Graduate Teaching Associate, School of Music, The Ohio State University 2012 to 2015 ..................................................Lecturer, School of Music, The Ohio State University Publications Kung, H. (2015). Bach The Preacher and Theologist? Journal of Ewha Music Research Institute 19(3), 93-110. Kung, H., & Will, U. (2016). “Not On The Same Page” – A Cross-Cultural Study on Pulse and Complex Meter Perception. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition. Paper presented at ICMPC14, San Francisco, 5-9 July (pp. 816-819). San Francisco: ICMPC. Fields of Study Major Field: Music Area of Emphasis: Cognitive Ethnomusicology vii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v Vita .................................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xiii Chapter 1. Embodied Musicality ........................................................................................ 1 Introduction to Mind-Body Integration ........................................................................... 1 Soma ................................................................................................................................ 2 Non-Cartesian Philosophy............................................................................................... 5 Integrating Culture and Body .......................................................................................... 7 Limits of the Research Based on Western Notation ..................................................... 14 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 17 Chapter 2. Revisiting Pulse ............................................................................................... 19 Rhythm .......................................................................................................................... 19 viii Entrainment ................................................................................................................... 22 Pulse .............................................................................................................................. 25 Preferred Pulse Tempo .................................................................................................. 26 Pulse–Beat Distinction .................................................................................................. 27 Contemporary Pulse Theories ....................................................................................... 28 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 34 Chapter 3. Meter and Culture ............................................................................................ 36 Background vs. Surface................................................................................................. 36 Contemporary Western Meter Theories ........................................................................ 38 Cultural Influences on Metrical Understanding ............................................................ 45 Problems of Applying Western Meter Theories in Non-Western Contexts .............. 45 Western Musical Meter as a Distinct Concept .......................................................... 49 Culturally Shaped Perception of Rhythm and Meter ................................................. 57 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 60 Chapter 4. Design of a Cross-Cultural Experiment on Pulse and Complex-Meter Perception and Cognition .................................................................................................. 62 Cultural Factors ............................................................................................................. 62 Rationale and Hypotheses ............................................................................................