THE DYNAMICS OF SOCIAL INCLUSION OF SCHEDULED CASTES IN KERALA: A STUDY BASED ON SC DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS Thesis submitted to the Cochin University of Science and Technology for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Under the Faculty of Social Sciences By APARNA S (Reg. No. 5092) Under the Supervision of Prof. (Dr.) D. Rajasenan DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED ECONOMICS Cochin University of Science and Technology Kochi – 682022 March-2019 The Dynamics of Social Inclusion of Scheduled Castes in Kerala: A Study Based of SC Development Projects Ph.D. Thesis under the Faculty of Social Sciences By Aparna S Research Scholar Department of Applied Economics Cochin University of Science and Technology Kerala, India Email: [email protected] Supervising Guide Prof. (Dr.) D. Rajasenan Former Professor Dept. of Applied Economics Cochin University of Science and Technology Kerala, India Email: [email protected] Department of Applied Economics Cochin University of Science and Technology Kochi – 682022, Kerala, India March 2019 Department of Applied Economics Cochin University of Science and Technology Kochi – 682 022 Dr. D. Rajasenan Phone: 0484 – 2577566 Former Professor Email: [email protected] Date: 25/02/2019 This is to certify that the Ph.D. thesis entitled “THE DYNAMICS OF SOCIAL INCLUSION OF SCHEDULED CASTES IN KERALA: A STUDY BASED ON SC DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS” submitted by Mrs. Aparna S is a record of bonafide research work carried out by her under my supervision and guidance in the Department of Applied Economics in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Cochin University of Science and Technology. The thesis has not formed the basis for award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship or other similar title of any other University or Board and is worth submitting for the award of Doctor of Philosophy under the Faculty of Social Sciences of Cochin University of Science and Technology. I also certify that all the relevant corrections and modifications as suggested by the audience during the pre- synopsis seminar and recommended by the Doctoral Committee of the candidate have been incorporated in the thesis. D. Rajasenan Supervising Guide I hereby declare that the dissertation entitled “THE DYNAMICS OF SOCIAL INCLUSION OF SCHEDULED CASTES IN KERALA: A STUDY BASED ON SC DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS ” is a record of bona fide research work done by me under the guidance of Prof. (Dr.) D. Rajasenan, Department of Applied Economics, Cochin University of Science and Technology, and that it has not been previously formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship or any other title of recognition. Aparna S First and foremost I behold to thy glory for giving pursuance and endurance to tune to the „universal life force‟ for all the struggles, stresses and strains for the timely completion of my doctoral dissertation. I am profusely blessed with the grace of Almighty for a happy happening. I express my deep sense of gratitude to my guide Dr. D. Rajasenan, Professor, Department of Applied Economics, and Director, the Centre for the Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy (CSSEIP), Cochin University of Science and Technology (CUSAT), for his never falling assistance for the successful completion of my doctoral degree. With his great wisdom and skilful knowledge he helped me to complete my work in time. His continuous support during the various stages of my work and the pain he took in correcting the mistakes was indeed encouraging. Sir, I owe you a lot. My thanks are also due to Dr. S. Harikumar, Professor, Department of Applied Economics, Cochin University of Science and Technology and Dr. P. Arunachalam, Head, Department of Applied Economics, Cochin University of Science and Technology for sharing their expertise during the research committee meetings. I would also like to express my special appreciation to Dr. B. Rajeev, Assistant Professor, the Centre for the Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy (CSSEIP) for helping me in doing the statistical analysis of the thesis with his expertise in data analysis. I also acknowledge the help of all the faculty members and office staffs of the Department of Applied Economics, Cochin University of Science and Technology (CUSAT) for their support and assistance. I extend my thanks to Dr. Bijith George Abraham, Aparna. P, Sunitha A S, Nishamol M, Ben Rois Jose, Ruby B for their constant encouragement in the completion of my work. I express my sincere thanks to Rakhi V.V, office staff, the Centre for the Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy for her clerical assistance. The two strong pillars of my life in education are my father, Sivakumar.S and my husband, Jithin .G.Nair and without these two persons love and support I would not be where I am now. I fail if I do not extend my sincere gratitude to both of them. The one who suffers the most when I was busy with my research work is my small son Vihaan. J. Nair and I remember with gratitude for his sacrifice. I fondly remember my mother Rema Devi P.K,for her silent motivation, and also my brother Vishnu .S and family, for their affectionate encouragement. I am indebted to my in-law, Lekha .G. Nair and Gopalakrishnan Nair and my sister in-law Jitha. G. Nair for their long lasting support. Finally, I extend a very special gratitude to my grandmother Rajamma T M who has taught me the value of women education. I bow before her knowledge and powerful vision in life. I would like to dedicate my PhD thesis to my beloved grandmother. Aparns. S Chapter 1 The Dynamics of Social Inclusion of the Scheduled Castes (SCs) in Kerala: A Study Based on SC Development Projects --------------------------- 1 1.1 Introduction --------------------------------------------- 1 1.1.1 Historical background of Dalit community in India --------------------------- 2 1.1.2 Paradox of Caste Discrimination ---------- 4 1.1.3 The legacy of social Exclusion in India- various levels -------------------------- 6 1.1.4 Dalits in Kerala -------------------------------- 7 1.2 Research Problem ------------------------------------ 10 1.3 Objectives --------------------------------------------- 11 1.4 Conceptual Framework ----------------------------- 11 1.5 Research question ------------------------------------ 13 1.6 Review of literature ---------------------------------- 13 1.6.1 Historical Evolution of Caste System in India ------------------------------ 13 1.6.2 Socio-economic Status of SCs ------------ 17 1.6.2.1 Health ------------------------------ 21 1.6.2.2 Employment ---------------------- 22 1.6.2.3 Education -------------------------- 24 1.6.3 Facets of Social Exclusion ---------------- 25 1.6.4 Modern Development and the SCs ------- 28 1.6.5 Programmes, Polices and Schemes for SC development ------------------------ 29 1.6.6 Scheduled Caste Sub Plan (SCSP) ------- 29 1.6.7 Land alienation problems and land struggles -------------------------------------- 30 1.6.8 Dalit Issues in International forum ------- 32 1.6.9 Pre-independence, Post- Independence, Globalisation and Dalits --------------------------------------------- 33 1.6.10 Dalits in Kerala ------------------------------ 38 1.7 Scope and methodology----------------------------- 39 1.8 Limitation of the Study ----------------------------- 41 1.9 Scheme of the Study --------------------------------- 41 Chapter 2 Socio-economic Status, Participation and Exclusion ------------------------------------------------------------------- 43 2.1 Socio-economic background ----------------------- 44 2.1.1 Occupational pattern ------------------------ 44 2.1.2 Educational profile -------------------------- 48 2.1.3 Health Condition ---------------------------- 50 2.1.4 Land Use Pattern of SCs ------------------ 51 2.1.5 Landless and Houseless SC families ----- 53 2.1.6 Housing condition -------------------------- 56 2.1.7 Participation of the SCs in the Development Process ----------------------- 57 2.1.8 Participation in Kudumbashree ----------- 60 2.1.9 MGNREG ------------------------------------ 63 2.1.10 Pensions -------------------------------------- 64 2.2 Basic Facilities --------------------------------------- 70 2.2.1 Availability of water ----------------------- 70 2.2.2 Health Facilities ----------------------------- 73 2.2.3 Educational Institutions -------------------- 78 2.2.4 Public utilities ------------------------------- 79 2.2.5 Sanitation facilities ------------------------- 84 2.2.6 Electricity Connectivity -------------------- 87 2.3 Segregation issues ----------------------------------- 90 2.3.1 Housing Segregation ----------------------- 90 2.3.2 Distribution of the SC Colonies in Kerala ----------------------------------------- 90 2.3.3 Distribution of Families According to Segregation ------------------------------- 91 2.3.4 Inter-District Pattern of Segregation ----- 93 2.3.4.1 Kollam ----------------------------- 93 2.3.4.2 Ernakulam ------------------------- 94 2.3.4.3 Idukki ------------------------------ 94 2.3.4.4 Palakkad --------------------------- 95 2.3.4.5 Malappuram ----------------------- 96 2.3.4.6 Thiruvananthapuram ------------- 97 2.3.4.7 Thrissur ---------------------------- 98 2.3.5 District-wise Intra-Community Segregation ---------------------------------- 99 2.3.5.1 Thiruvananthapuram ------------ 101 2.3.5.2 Kollam ---------------------------- 101 2.3.5.3 Idukki ----------------------------- 102 2.3.5.4 Ernakulam ------------------------ 103 2.3.5.5 Thrissur ---------------------------