International Adoption: Benefits, Risks, and Vulnerabilities By Tamsen Rochat and Linda Richter, ZERO TO THREE Corner Child, Youth, Family and Social Development Programme, Human The international adoption of children who have been raised in Sciences Research Council, South Africa institutions abroad is on the rise in the United States and is not without controversy. Reasons for the increase include higher rates of infertility in The issue of international adoption couples who have delayed parenthood; increased numbers of children has featured prominently in media who are relinquished, abandoned, or orphaned around the world; and headlines, spurred in recent years by the influence of third party agencies. Internationally adopted children public interest in the family-building activities of superstars such as Angelia face numerous risks and vulnerabilities, including the loss of their family, Jolie and Madonna. Although newsworthy country, language, and culture. Critics argue that international adoption and fashionably interesting, neither the helps a relatively small number of children who find adoptive parents practice nor the controversy surrounding but may impede countries from developing social programs that would international adoption is new. As Rosenblum and Olshansky (2007) highlight benefit the vast majority of children who are suffering due to poverty or in their discussion of diverse pathways to social and political problems. parenthood, adoption plays a significant role in the formation of kinships in the United States, with roughly 2.5% (16 brought to the United States. International other countries, the United States has million) of all children under age 18 being adoption in this earlier period was shown the biggest growth in international adopted (U.S. Census Bureau, 2007). motivated by care and concern for children adoptions and now accounts for over half Likewise, international adoptions have in distress in foreign countries. of all such adoptions worldwide. increased from 5% of all adoptions in the In the latter part of the 20th century, Most analysts agree (Hollingsworth, 2003; late 1980s to 15% of all adoptions in 2001 American involvement in conflicts in Korea Johnson, 2005; Kane, 1993; Selman, 2002; (Kane, 1993; Selman, 2002), a threefold and Vietnam increased the motivation for Weil, 1984) that three important factors increase that indicates significant growth and practice of international adoption. have driven the increase in international in the popularity of adoption as a method Other factors included the humanitarian adoptions to the United States: of family building (Johnson, 2005). fallout from civil conflicts in countries such as Greece, El Salvador, and Haiti, and, 1. Increased demand for children from International adoption is currently within the United States. estimated to involve over 40,000 children more recently, the collapse of communism a year moving between more than 100 in Eastern Europe and the introduction 2. The abject poverty of southern countries (Juffer & van IJzendoorn, 2005). of population control initiatives in China hemisphere countries and the The 2000 U.S. census reported 199,136 (Hollingsworth, 2003; O’Halloran, 2006). subsequent abundant number of children who have been abandoned, international adoptees younger than 18 Trends and patterns in international left destitute, or relinquished by their years living with families in the United adoption over time suggest that increases birth families, in addition to those who States (Johnson, 2005) and official U.S. in international adoption are not generally have been orphaned. immigration data indicates a further motivated by humanitarian responses to increase of 107,841 over the four years war and conflict (Selman, 2002). Instead, 3. The activities of third parties, such as 2001–2005 (U.S. Department of State, they have become an attractive option for adoption agencies, who strongly 2007a; U.S. Department of State, 2007b). infertile couples in western societies, who influence and facilitate the current Given the scale of the increase, there can may or may not also be motivated by the child migration process.[ be little doubt that hundreds of thousands desire to care for children in need. Whereas In addition, the following factors have of American families, their child-care in the 1960s and 1970s adopters might played a specific role in the increasing practitioners, and other service providers have been motivated to assist children in demand for international adoption in the are participating in and are directly or need of a home, potential adoptive families United States. indirectly affected by the explosive growth today are seeking babies who are healthy in international adoption. and voluntarily relinquished (Momaya, Increased Reproductive Health 1999; O’Halloran, 2006). Choices and Decreased Fertility Trends in International During the last three decades, several studies (Kane, 1993; Selman, 2002; Most western societies have seen a drop in Adoption in the United States Weil, 1984) have examined the growth fertility rates over the last few decades, and and trends in the migration patterns of the United States is no exception. Current The early history of international adoption children through international adoption, reproductive trends indicate that at least has been well documented (Altstein & both worldwide and to the United States. one quarter of American women have their Simon, 1991; Selman, 2002; Weil, 1984). It These studies have demonstrated a rapid first baby after 35 years of age. This, along emerged as a valued, legal, and morally and significant increase in the number with greater reproductive choices, has led motivated practice in the aftermath of of international adoptions to the United to increased involuntary infertility. The World War II, when thousands of orphaned States since the 1980s. In comparison to net result has been that fewer unplanned and destitute European children were or unwanted infants are born in the U.S., 19 WORLD ASSOCIATION FOR INFANT MENTAL HEALTH JULY - DECEMBER 2010 and many more parents find themselves to spend significantly more money than support services and poverty increase the unable to build a biological family later in they would for a national adoption. Factors likelihood of abandonment of children, their lives (Darnell, 2004; Johnson, 2005; that may influence eligibility in the United in particular if birth parents feel they are O’Halloran, 2006; Selman, 2002). States are often much less restrictive in the giving the child a chance at better care international adoption arena and more (Hollingsworth, 2003; Wallace, 2003). Increased Maternal Choice and influenced by other eligibility criteria, Furthermore, postadoption opportunities Support for Unmarried Mothers such as income and willingness to adopt for contact are limited, either by the (O’Halloran, 2006). nature of the adoption, or by the inability Increased maternal choices to retain rather to practice openness because of the than relinquish a nonmarital child have distance and financial resources required. played a significant role in reducing the Consequently, access to “open” adoptions is number of children available for domestic Risks and Controversies severely limited (O’Halloran, 2006). adoption. Declining stigma, coupled with welfare benefits and support services, Along with the increasing demand for and Market-Driven Economies Introduce has allowed single parenting to become a rapid growth in international adoption, New Risks for Children feasible option, and has resulted in fewer growing concerns have been raised by or American children being made eligible for on of behalf of sending countries. These The current rapid growth in the domestic adoption (Hollingsworth, 2003; concerns have mainly centred on the movement of children across borders Johnson, 2005; O’Halloran, 2006). following issues. and the increased demand and supply of children has resulted in market-related Birth Parents’ Rights and Open The Removal of Adoptable Children conditions developing for the legitimate Adoption Systems From Their Birth Country trade of children (Kane, 1993). However, such developments create precisely Increased protection of birth parents’ International adoption, in particular the conditions under which it becomes rights, the development of the foster recent trends demonstrating an increase difficult to protect the rights of children care system, and the movement away in the demand for younger, healthy and the “best interest of the child” are from closed adoptions have influenced infants, may lead to the removal of the less and less likely to be taken into the number, age, and nature of children most adoptable children from their own consideration (O’Halloran, 2006). Market- available within domestic adoption countries (O’Halloran, 2006). International related conditions for adoptions raise systems. Currently, a child’s eligibility for adoption preempts the possibility of concerns that the legality of an adoption adoption is determined more by court meeting the needs of native adopters and process may be compromised on account processes than by parental choice. Children leaves behind children who are statistically of the wealth or financial status of the being made available for adoption tend less likely to be adopted. Several analysts adopter or of their representing agency, to be older, with some level of mandated (Hollingsworth, 2003; Selman, 2002; as was demonstrated by the recent contact with birth parents (Johnson,