Running head: EDUCATION AND SELF-EFFICACY AMONG ALBANIAN IMMIGRANTS. THEY CAME SEARCHING FOR THE AMERICAN DREAM: A CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY OF EDUCATION, ACCULTURATION, AND SELF- EFFICACY AMONG RECENT ALBANIAN IMMIGRANTS A dissertation presented by Elda Zeko-Underwood Submitted to The Department of Applied Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in the field of Counseling Psychology Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts, March 2019 Doctoral Committee Members: Dr. Tracy Robinson-Wood, Committee Chair Dr. Chieh Li Dr. William Sanchez EDUCATION AND SELF-EFFICACY AMONG ALBANIAN IMMIGRANTS Table of Contents List of figures .................................................................................................................................. v List of tables ................................................................................................................................... vi Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... vii CHAPTER 1. .................................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ................................................. 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 6 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 10 Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 11 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 12 Rationale for a Relationship-Based Research Design .............................................................. 14 Definition of Terms .................................................................................................................. 16 CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................. 19 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 19 Self-Efficacy ............................................................................................................................. 20 Self-Efficacy and Feminist Ecological Theory ......................................................................... 23 Self-Efficacy in Individualistic and Collectivistic Societies .................................................... 24 Level of Education, Employment, and Self-Efficacy ............................................................... 27 Acculturation ............................................................................................................................ 29 Acculturation and Self-Efficacy ............................................................................................... 32 Level of Education, Employment, and Acculturation .............................................................. 33 An Introduction to Albanian Identity ........................................................................................ 34 Migratory History of Albanians ................................................................................................ 36 Limited Rights of Albanians Under the Communist Regime ................................................... 38 Albania Under the Lens of Feminist Ecological Theory .......................................................... 40 CHAPTER 3. ................................................................................................................................ 42 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 42 Participants ................................................................................................................................ 42 Sampling Techniques ................................................................................................................ 42 Sample Size ............................................................................................................................... 43 ii EDUCATION AND SELF-EFFICACY AMONG ALBANIAN IMMIGRANTS Measures ................................................................................................................................... 43 The Role and the Background of the Researcher ..................................................................... 47 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 49 Validity ..................................................................................................................................... 51 Procedures ................................................................................................................................. 51 Human Subjects Concerns ........................................................................................................ 51 Participant Monetary Reward ................................................................................................... 52 CHAPTER 4. ................................................................................................................................ 53 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................... 53 Phase 1 – Pilot sample .............................................................................................................. 53 Demographics ....................................................................................................................... 53 Data analysis. ....................................................................................................................... 54 Phase 2 – Complete sample ...................................................................................................... 57 Demographics ....................................................................................................................... 57 Data analysis ........................................................................................................................ 63 Table 16 ................................................................................................................................ 72 CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................................. 77 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................... 77 Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 77 Summary of Demographic Data ............................................................................................... 78 Self-Efficacy and Education ..................................................................................................... 85 Self-efficacy and Age at Migration .......................................................................................... 86 Self-efficacy, Location of Degree and Employment ................................................................ 88 Self-efficacy and Homeownership ............................................................................................ 93 Self-efficacy and Gender .......................................................................................................... 96 Acculturation and Education .................................................................................................... 99 Acculturation and Age at Migration ....................................................................................... 106 Contribution and clinical implications of this study ............................................................... 107 Contributions ...................................................................................................................... 107 iii EDUCATION AND SELF-EFFICACY AMONG ALBANIAN IMMIGRANTS Clinical Implications ........................................................................................................... 109 Limitations of the Study ......................................................................................................... 111 Future studies .......................................................................................................................... 113 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 115 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................ 147 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................. 148 Vancouver Index of Acculturation (VIA) ..............................................................................