PROPOSED REVISION AND VALIDATION OF THE GENDERISM AND TRANSPHOBIA SCALE A Thesis Presented to the faculty of the Department of Psychology California State University, Sacramento Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in Psychology by Sam Stevens SPRING 2018 © 2018 Sam Stevens ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii PROPOSED REVISION AND VALIDATION OF THE GENDERISM AND TRANSPHOBIA SCALE A Thesis by Sam Stevens Approved by: __________________________________, Committee Chair Dr. Lawrence Meyers __________________________________, Second Reader Dr. Rebecca Cameron __________________________________, Third Reader Dr. Timothy Gaffney ____________________________ Date iii Student: Sam Stevens I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the thesis. __________________________, Graduate Coordinator ___________________ Dr. Lisa M. Bohon Date Department of Psychology iv Abstract of PROPOSED REVISION AND VALIDATION OF THE GENDERISM AND TRANSPHOBIA SCALE by Sam Stevens One of the most frequently used inventories to measure anti-trans prejudice in research is the Genderism and Transphobia Scale (GTS; Hill & Willoughby, 2005). Multiple versions of this inventory have been proposed to improve measurement of both negative attitudes (Genderism/Transphobia) and violent behaviors (Gender-Bashing) toward trans individuals (Carrera-Fernandez, LaMeiras-Fernandez, Rodriquez-Castro, & Vallejo-Medina, 2014; Tebbe, Moradi, & Ege, 2014). The present study assessed the psychometric properties of the original GTS factor structure and 3 proposed revisions. Results of confirmatory factor analysis and reliability assessment indicated poor fit for all existing inventories. Further analysis on 2 independent samples yielded a new 17-item factor structure with good fit, sufficient reliability, and convergent validity. Additional analyses configured a structural model using intrinsic religiosity to predict trans negativity with ethnocentrism and prosociality acting as mediators in this relationship. _______________________, Committee Chair Dr. Lawrence Meyers _______________________ Date v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my dad for sawdust and nail polish and Thanksgiving spaghetti. Five more minutes… I would like to thank Big Grandma, Little Grandma, Grandpa, and Margie for being part of the village that raised me and taught me to look for the little positives in a huge ugly world. I would like to thank Aunt Linda for allowing me a space to hide long enough to write a whole bunch of pages in peace. I would like to thank Jestin for providing me the opportunity to put my education before my fear of not eating for the first time in my life. Your generosity and small silent gestures are not overlooked and can never fully be repaid. The world is lucky to encounter your quiet beauty. I would like to thank Dr. Meyers for giving me just enough rope to stave off boredom but not enough to hang myself. I appreciate you respecting my need for independence and inability to conform. I would like to thank Dr. Cameron for taking a chance on that weird awkward kid so long ago. You have given me the courage to try when I did not believe in myself over the years. I may have grumbled about “mothering” at times but still appreciated you taking the time to do so. I would like to thank Dr. Gaffney for his role on my thesis committee and the hours of IRT lectures. I would like to thank Dr. Bohon, Dr. Ellison, and Dr. August for their encouragement and words of wisdom as I have assessed what is possible and important for my still uncertain future. I would like to thank my lab mates for not killing me for my neurotic need to overproduce. I would like to thank the friends, near and far, who helped walk me through one of the darkest times in my life. I am still here because of your honesty, loyalty, and enduring patience. I will never forget your kindnesses. I would like to thank my students and employees who over the years have given me the privilege of mentoring them. You taught me just as much as I taught you. You know who you are and I still believe in you. Finally, I would like to thank Wren for the impact you have had on my life. You are a beautiful light that shines so bright. I never cease to be amazed by your curiosity, your individuality, and your mind. I feel honored to be part of the village raising you. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... x Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ……………..…………………………………….………………….. 1 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 1 Historical Background: From Sex to Transgender ...................................................... 3 2. TRANSPHOBIA AND RELATED CONSTRUCTS ....................................................... 10 Transphobia ............................................................................................................... 10 Gender Role Expectations.......................................................................................... 12 Religiosity .................................................................................................................. 16 Ethnocentrism ............................................................................................................ 19 Prosociality ................................................................................................................ 21 3. MEASURING TRANSPHOBIA ...................................................................................... 23 4. PRESENT RESEARCH ................................................................................................... 26 Purpose ...................................................................................................................... 26 Hypotheses ................................................................................................................. 27 5. EXAMINATION OF THE GTS FACTOR STRUCTURE .............................................. 28 Method ....................................................................................................................... 28 Results ........................................................................................................................ 29 vii 6. REVISION OF THE GTS FACTOR STRUCTURE ....................................................... 31 Method ....................................................................................................................... 31 Results and Discussion .............................................................................................. 34 7. STRUCTURAL MODEL PREDICTING TRANSPHOBIA............................................ 39 Method ....................................................................................................................... 39 Results and Discussion .............................................................................................. 41 8. GENERAL DISCUSSION ........................................................................................... 46 Hypotheses ................................................................................................................. 47 Limitations ................................................................................................................. 49 Future Directions ....................................................................................................... 51 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 52 Appendix A. ............................................................................................................................ 53 References ............................................................................................................................... 54 viii LIST OF TABLES Tables Page 1. Demographic Characteristics for Cisgender Heterosexual Participants…………...…. 28 2. Fit Statistics for Existing Versions of the GTS…………………………………....…. 30 3. Structure Coefficients of the New Proposed Structure of the GTS………….….……. 36 4. Correlations and Descriptive Statistics between the GTS subscales, the ATLG, ATTI, HBSS, and AOSQ for EFA…………….…………..……….……. 37 5. Correlations and Descriptive Statistics between the GTS subscales, the ATLG, ATTI, HBSS, and AOSQ for CFA……………….…………….….….…. 38 6. Descriptive Statistics of Structural Model Variables…………………………..….…. 40 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figures Page 1. Proposed relationships between predictor variables intrinsic religiosity, ethnocentrism, prosociality, and dependent variable trans negativity……................. 27 2. Structural model predicting trans negativity .................. ……………………………. 41 x 1 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Statement of the Problem In March of 2016 the transgender subgroup of the LGBT community became a focus of national media when the state of North Carolina passed legislation that banned any municipality in the state from passing laws that would protect