03-370 (1) Front 3/18/04 12:51 PM Page ii 05-398 (1) FM.qxd 10/20/05 6:13 AM Page i HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF INTELLIGENCE AND COUNTERINTELLIGENCE SERIES Jon Woronoff, Series Editor 1. British Intelligence, by Nigel West, 2005. 2. United States Intelligence, by Michael A. Turner, 2006. 05-398 (1) FM.qxd 10/20/05 6:13 AM Page ii 05-398 (1) FM.qxd 10/20/05 6:13 AM Page iii Historical Dictionary of United States Intelligence Michael A. Turner Historical Dictionaries of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, No. 2 The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, Maryland • Toronto • Oxford 2006 05-398 (1) FM.qxd 10/20/05 6:13 AM Page iv SCARECROW PRESS, INC. Published in the United States of America by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.scarecrowpress.com PO Box 317 Oxford OX2 9RU, UK Copyright © 2006 by Michael A. Turner The author, a former CIA employee, submitted this manuscript to the CIA’s Publication Review Board, which reviewed it to assist the author in eliminating classified information. The board posed no security objection to the book’s publication. This review, however, should not be construed as official release of information, confirmation of accuracy, or an endorsement of the author’s views. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Turner, Michael A., 1947– Historical dictionary of United States intelligence / Michael A. Turner. p. cm.—(Historical dictionaries of intelligence and counterintelligence ; no. 2) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8108-4947-X (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Intelligence service—United States—History—Dictionaries. 2. Military intelligence—United States—History—Dictionaries. I. Title. II. Series. JK468.I6T863 2006 327.1273'03—dc22 2005016699 ∞™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Manufactured in the United States of America. 05-398 (1) FM.qxd 10/20/05 6:13 AM Page v Contents Editor’s Foreword Jon Woronoff vii Preface ix Acknowledgments xi Acronyms and Abbreviations xiii Chronology xxi Introduction xxxvii THE DICTIONARY 1 Appendixes A Directors of Central Intelligence 225 B Deputy Directors of Central Intelligence 227 Bibliography 229 About the Author 291 v 05-398 (1) FM.qxd 10/20/05 6:13 AM Page vi 05-398 (1) FM.qxd 10/20/05 6:13 AM Page vii Editor’s Foreword Historical Dictionary of United States Intelligence follows the one on British intelligence, perhaps rightly so since the Americans actually got started while throwing off the British yoke during the Revolution and later cooperated very closely with the British. While the Americans could certainly learn a trick or two about espionage during the early pe- riod, it quickly became apparent that no one could outperform them in most areas and especially not for technical collection of intelligence. And there is no question that intelligence was decisive in defeating the Axis during World War II and the Soviet Union and communism during the Cold War. Alas, since 11 September 2001 and the war on terrorism, the United States is pitted against an enemy in which old-fashioned hu- man intelligence is far more important than any fancy gadgetry, and it will have to revamp its intelligence organizations and train more agents to face a tenacious and bitter foe. Thus, once again, the United States intelligence community is undergoing realignment and tighter over- sight, in the midst of a crisis that has certainly shaken the faith in its ability to do the job. The chronology follows the twists and turns of over two centuries of history. The introduction explains just what intelligence is and does and shows how U.S. intelligence operations have evolved over those centuries. The dictionary then looks at essential aspects more closely, including the various organizations, the persons who created and managed them, who worked for or defied them, and the many reforms and laws adopted to im- prove their operations or bring them under government control. This sec- tion includes entries on the successes, and also on the failures, as well as the present challenges, which are very different and particularly difficult to cope with. The bibliography is helpful for those who want to learn more. Meanwhile, the list of acronyms is there for anyone who needs to figure out which letters represent which organizations or functions. vii 05-398 (1) FM.qxd 10/20/05 6:13 AM Page viii viii • EDITOR’S FOREWORD This book was written by Michael A. Turner, who has learned about U.S. intelligence from within and without. After a brief stint as profes- sor, he joined the Central Intelligence Agency and spent nearly 15 years in various positions, including analysis, congressional liaison, and pub- lic affairs. He has spent the past decade in academia as Cannon Profes- sor of International Relations and Peace Studies at Alliant International University. So he is well placed to know about the trade and also to ex- plain it to others, which he has been doing in lectures to his students, and books and articles in learned journals. While not revealing any se- crets, he has performed the precious task of making sense of a very complicated and increasingly vital activity. Jon Woronoff Series Editor 05-398 (1) FM.qxd 10/20/05 6:13 AM Page ix Preface Preparing a historical dictionary on U.S. intelligence is a formidable task, for two reasons. First, the subject matter is not what it seems: while the United States has had some kind of intelligence capability throughout its history, its intelligence apparatus is young, dating only to the period immediately after World War II. Yet, in that short a time, it has undergone enormous changes—from the labor-intensive espionage and covert action establishment of the 1950s to an enterprise that today relies heavily on technologically advanced information pathways and seriously expensive gadgets like satellites, airborne collection plat- forms, and unmanned aerial vehicles. Second, writing about intelligence matters invariably is fraught with difficulties, not the least of which is the secrecy surrounding intelligence activities. Secrecy is a bulwark of any intelligence service, and this is no different for U.S. intelligence. Therefore, some of what could be known about U.S. intelligence and its activities simply is shrouded in the mists of classification schemes and is unavailable to the public. However, the United States is one of the few countries on the globe that allows dis- cussion and debate, albeit sometimes grudgingly, about its intelligence agencies and their activities. As a result, a surprisingly large number of authors, both from inside and outside the U.S. intelligence community, have written about U.S. intelligence in all its guises. This burgeoning lit- erature makes virtually all facets of the American intelligence enterprise readily available to the public. The richness of this literature is evident in the fact that, even though the author is a former intelligence officer, everything in this dictionary came from publicly available materials. There is a third complication in writing historically about intelligence— that of coming to terms with the myriad conceptions of intelligence. Ap- preciating the history of U.S. intelligence requires an understanding of in- telligence as an essential governmental activity. The public understandably ix 05-398 (1) FM.qxd 10/20/05 6:13 AM Page x x•PREFACE focuses on its most alluring aspects, gleaned often from fictional works that provide grist for the entertainment industry. This is the world of fan- tasy, far removed from the real world of secret intelligence, although it has had an enormous impact on public perceptions of American intelligence. Those among the public who are suspicious of government in all its forms see intelligence as a source of evil, a dark world of secrecy and deception that overthrows legitimate governments, assassinates political leaders, and tramples the civil liberties of Americans. When these two images are com- bined, they produce a view of intelligence that is simultaneously titillating and exciting, and nefarious, uncontrolled, and uncontrollable. Occasionally, discussions on intelligence are mired in additional con- ceptual difficulties, owing to the fact that intelligence, as a governmen- tal activity, exists to illuminate and support the foreign policy objectives of whichever administration is in office, and so, logically, comes to be identified with that administration’s foreign policy. Critics of adminis- tration policy then quickly focus on the role intelligence plays in that process and typically associate intelligence with sinister activities that illegally further a dubious foreign policy. However, intelligence has little to do with implementing policy. There is a part of secret intelligence, covert action, that is designed to execute specific aspects of American foreign policy, but it is only a small— although, unfortunately, the most infamous—part of intelligence. 05-398 (1) FM.qxd 10/20/05 6:13 AM Page xi Acknowledgments Writing a dictionary almost certainly is a team effort, and Historical Dictionary of United States Intelligence is no exception. I would not have been able to complete the project in an expeditious manner if it were not for the meticulous and determined efforts of my two research assistants, Sara Grace Petite and Samer Elchahabi. My friend Dr. William Perry, of Western Carolina University, edited the manuscript and made invaluable contributions to its content and style.