1097 The expression of virulence for a mixed-mode transmitted parasite in a diapausing host ELHAM SHEIKH-JABBARI1*, MATTHEW D. HALL1†, FRIDA BEN-AMI2 and DIETER EBERT1,3 1 University of Basel, Zoological Institute, Vesalgasse 1, 4051 Basel, Switzerland 2 Department of Zoology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel 3 Tvärminne Zoological Station, FI-10900 Hanko, Finland (Received 11 November 2013; revised 26 January and 27 February 2014; accepted 3 March 2014; first published online 30 April 2014) SUMMARY Many parasites survive harsh periods together with their hosts. Without the possibility of horizontal transmission during host diapause, parasite persistence depends entirely on host survival. We therefore hypothesize that a parasite should be avirulent during its host’s diapausing stage. In contrast, the parasite may express higher virulence, i.e. parasite-induced fitness reduction of the host, during host life stages with good opportunities for horizontal transmission. Here we study the effects of a vertically and horizontally transmitted microsporidium parasite, Hamiltosporidium tvaerminnensis, on the quantity and survival of resting eggs of its host Daphnia magna. We find that the parasite did not affect egg volume, hatching success and time to hatching of the Daphnia’s resting eggs, although it did strongly reduce the number of resting eggs produced by infected females, revealing high virulence during the non-diapause phase of the host’s life cycle. These results also explain another aspect of this system – namely the strong decline in natural population prevalence across diapause. This decline is not caused by mortality in infected resting stages, as was previously hypothesized, but because infected female hosts produce lower rates of resting eggs. Together, these results help explain the epidemiological dynamics of a microsporidian disease and highlight the adaptive nature of life stage-dependent parasite virulence. Key words: Daphnia magna, Hamiltosporidium tvaerminnensis, diapause, host-parasite, infection, rock pools. INTRODUCTION strongly fluctuating densities, including host dia- pause (Regniere, 1984; Lipsitch et al. 1995; Sorrell In seasonal habitats, many species undergo periods of et al. 2009; Ebert, 2013). reduced activity, or diapause, to survive adverse Little is known about the expression of parasite environmental conditions. For parasites, host dia- virulence during host diapause. Under non-diapause pause may constitute a bottleneck, as survival outside conditions, virulence is thought to evolve as a balance the host may be impossible and strongly impair between the costs of harming the host (and parasite) opportunities for transmission during metabolically and the benefits of within-host competition and inactive host stages such as resting eggs and seeds transmission-stage production (Bull, 1994; Alizon (Thomson, 1958). One strategy that parasites use to et al. 2009). Based on this trade-off model, most endure such periods is to undergo diapause together parasites are expected to evolve intermediate levels of with their host (Thomson, 1958; Regniere, 1984; harm to the host (=virulence). During host diapause, Bauer and Nordin, 1989b; Evseeva, 1996;Brown however, when parasites have reduced, or zero, et al. 2003; Andreadis, 2005). This is often achieved opportunities for transmission from the resting host when the parasite is vertically transmitted (trans- they must maximize their chances of surviving mission between mothers and offspring) into dia- together with the host. Thus it is expected that the pausing eggs, seeds or embryos, even though these parasite should be avirulent to ensure its and the parasites may otherwise be horizontally transmitted host’s survival. This is similar to when a mixed-mode (between hosts not related in direct line) (Regniere, transmitting parasite loses its opportunities for 1984; Mink, 1993). Generally, the ability to transmit horizontal transmission and therefore is expected to both vertically and horizontally (=mixed mode evolve avirulence (Fine, 1975; Stewart and Levin, transmission) is an efficient strategy for parasites, 1984; Bull et al. 1991; Magalon et al. 2010). Here allowing them to persist in host populations with we suggest that parasites would do best to adopt strategies specific to each host life stage: to express * Corresponding author: University of Basel, Zoological high levels of virulence during the metabolically Institute, Vesalgasse 1, 4051 Basel, Switzerland. E-mail: ’ [email protected] active phase of the host s life cycle, and to be avirulent † Current address: School of Biological Sciences, Monash during the host’s diapause, when horizontal trans- University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia. mission is not possible. Parasitology (2014), 141, 1097–1107. © Cambridge University Press 2014 doi:10.1017/S0031182014000456 Elham Sheikh-Jabbari and others 1098 Mixed-mode transmission is common among inside a protective shell called an ephippium. microsporidia and is often found in parasites with Ephippia allow hosts and parasites to survive harsh diapausing hosts. These parasites are typically periods of freezing or drought (Altermatt and Ebert, virulent, reducing host survival and fecundity 2010). Resting stages hatch after environmental (Agnew and Koella, 1999; Dunn and Smith, 2001; stimuli indicate better conditions. During the active Futerman et al. 2006; Rutrecht and Brown, 2008). part of their life cycle, Daphnia inhabit the plankton Furthermore, when transmitted from mothers to of freshwater ponds and lakes. their directly developing offspring, these parasites The microsporidium H. tvaerminnensis (Haag et al. often dramatically reduce egg hatching and embryo 2011) (formerly called Octosporea bayeri)isan survival (Andreadis and Hall, 1979; Andreadis, 1983; obligate parasite of D. magna. It is horizontally Bauer and Nordin, 1989a; Becnel et al. 1995; Raina transmitted through environmental spores and ver- et al. 1995). Whether the same is true for parasites tically transmitted to both asexually and sexually that are vertically transmitted to resting eggs and produced host eggs (Vizoso et al. 2005; Ebert et al. embryos is not known. Vertical transmission to 2007). Hamiltosporidium tvaerminnensis greatly re- resting eggs and embryos is important in seasonal duces the competitive ability of its hosts in the environments, where many microsporidia are pre- planktonic phase (Lass and Ebert, 2006; Bieger and dominantly transmitted horizontally during the Ebert, 2009). In vertically infected hosts, virulent host’s growth season, but are vertically transmitted effects are particularly strong, reducing lifetime in the diapausing stage of the host (Thomson, 1958; reproductive success by up to 85% (Ben-Ami et al. Bauer and Nordin, 1989b; Raina et al. 1995; Vizoso 2011). Upon infection, Hamiltosporidium produces and Ebert, 2004; Ebert, 2013). Although these several million spores in the host’s body. These microsporidia are described as highly virulent during spores are released for horizontal transmission after the host’s growth season (including killing the the host’s death. Spore production is a proxy for developing eggs; references as before), nothing has the parasite’s horizontal transmission potential and been reported about virulence during the host’s is traded-off with reduction in host fecundity, resting phase. a measure for virulence (Vizoso and Ebert, 2005). Here we test the hypothesis that a parasite that is Infected resting eggs do not contain fully developed, virulent during the host’s growth phase expresses low microsporidian spores, making transmission from levels of virulence during host diapause, thus max- resting eggs impossible (E. Sheikh-Jabbari, unpub- imizing its likelihood of surviving diapause together lished). with its host. We test this hypothesis using the Infections by H. tvaerminnensis are recognized by microsporidium Hamiltosporidium tvaerminnensis the presence of the typical spores. To observe the (Haag et al. 2011) of the water flea Daphnia magna, spores, which are very numerous when present, which lives in a seasonal habitat. Three complemen- whole D. magna are placed on glass slides with a tary experiments were conducted, each focusing on a drop of medium and a cover-slip is pressed upon different aspect of infectious disease. In the first the Daphnia with a rotating motion so as to spread experiment resting eggs were collected from natural the tissues evenly. These wet-mount preparations rock pools. All populations were infected but the are observed using phase-contrast microscopy at prevalence was unknown. In the second experiment 400× magnification. Spore types of H. tvaerminnensis infected and uninfected females collected from one have been described and can be easily identified and natural rock pool were used to produce monoclonal differentiated from other parasites, even from the populations placed in mesocosms in the field. In the congeneric Hamiltosporidium magnivora, also a para- third experiment infected and uninfected host site of D. magna (Vizoso et al. 2005; Haag et al. 2011). clones were reared in the laboratory. By quantifying No other vertically transmitted microsporidia are the parasite’sinfluence on resting stage production, known to infect D. magna in this metapopulation egg morphology and hatching, we test whether this (Ebert et al. 2001). Molecular analysis confirmed that otherwise virulent parasite expresses reduced viru- H. tvaerminnensis from these rock pool populations