The Warrior Gets Married: Constructing the Masculine Hero in Beowulf and Chrétien de Troyes’ Erec et Enide A dissertation presented to the faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy David C. Fritts August 2012 © 2012 David C. Fritts. All Rights Reserved. 2 This dissertation titled The Warrior Gets Married: Constructing the Masculine Hero in Beowulf and Chrétien de Troyes' Erec et Enide by DAVID C. FRITTS has been approved for the Department of English and the College of Arts and Sciences by Josephine Bloomfield Associate Professor of English Howard Dewald Interim Dean, College of Arts and Sciences 3 ABSTRACT FRITTS, DAVID C., Ph.D., August 2012, English The Warrior Gets Married: Constructing the Masculine Hero in Beowulf and Chrétien de Troyes' Erec et Enide Director ofDissertation: Josephine Bloomfield The hero that emerged in twelfth-century romance appears to respond to a different masculine ideal than the heroes of genres with earlier roots. What changing conditions of the social construction of masculinity contributed to the emergence of a new literary hero? Comparing Chrétien de Troyes’ first Arthurian romance, Erec et Enide, with the Danish adventure that comprises the first two-thirds of Beowulf through the lens of masculinity reveals much about the hero’s changing initiation into manhood. Each receives the property and status that recognizes his manhood at the end of his exploits, suggesting that his performance has demonstrated accepted masculine behavior. The heroes’ actions are measured against an array of others—beasts, women, boys, and old men—not only demonstrating their superiority over these others but also absorbing some of their qualities. Both heroes perform a manhood that balances these qualities with traditional masculine qualities as reflected in concepts of naturalized gender and of socially constructed warrior codes. The changes apparent in the hero of romance reflect the ways that marriage was changing in Chrétien’s time. At the same time that aristocratic marriage strategies had begun to favor the eldest son, the church was redefining marriage in canon law, making marriage formation a personal choice that initiated a relationship that would develop into 4 a loving marital bond. Thus, romance heroes at first reflect the desires of young knights who must make their way by their own skills to attract wives of means. The spectacle of manhood becomes emphasized—the visual display of martial skills as well as bodily attractiveness. Further, the romance plot reflects the association of maturity with a man’s growth into the responsibilities of a husband. Whereas Beowulf has only to perform a public masculinity, the romance hero has to reconcile his public responsibilities with these new private expectations. Despite these differences, when closely examined, the two heroes reveal an adherence to a surprisingly similar masculine ideal. To demonstrate manhood, both heroes must balance a ferocious prowess with an internalized feminine voice of forward-looking wisdom. Approved: _____________________________________________________________ Josephine Bloomfield Associate Professor of English 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Completing this project has been a long journey, so there are many people over many years to acknowledge for their help and support. First among all of these is Dr. Josephine Bloomfield, without whom I would not have succeeded. As Director of Graduate Studies, she facilitated my return to graduate work after nearly thirty years away. As director of my dissertation, she patiently guided me through the years-long process of writing. Draft after draft, she responded quickly and thoroughly and positively. She kept me going. Her knowledge of Old English and her scholarship are inspiring. I also thank my dissertation committee for their helpful and thought-provoking comments: Dr. Andrew Escobedo, Dr. Marsha Dutton, and Dr. Mary Jane Kelley. I thank Dr. Dutton and Dr. Escobedo, especially, for hanging in with me from the comprehensive exam to the dissertation defense seven years later. I also acknowledge the faculty with whom I previously studied medieval literature: Dr. R. Vance Ramsey, who guided my first translation of Beowulf; Mr. Robert Roe, who taught me to read Old English; and Dr. Ben Allen Park. Finally, I acknowledge Dr. Eugene Clasby for making me realize that reading Chaucer in Middle English was worth the effort and starting me on a road back in time in my literary studies. Great thanks go to my partner, Melanie Lee, who has been my support and encouragement during the entire journey. From the day I left to take my first class in thirty years to the afternoon I defended my dissertation, she has cheered me on. But more than that, Melanie kept me thinking. During our regular conversation about my 6 dissertation, she became excited about the ideas with me and asked the hard questions. More than once, her insight pulled me out of confusion. In addition, I acknowledge the members of my online writing groups over the years, but I thank Dr. Candace Stewart especially, whose group leadership and feedback helped me reach the finish line. Big thanks are due Dr. Betty Pytlik, whose friendship, good humor, and advice began thirty years ago when she came to OU as a new faculty member and have continued through her retirement. She is the one person who has seen my journey from the beginning to the end. She will finally see my completion of the degree! Finally, I thank my family for their support through all my years in academe. My mom, who cheered on whatever I did, saw me return to finish my degree, but sadly is not here for its completion. I have never forgotten the day my dad convinced me to consider the University of Miami’s offer of early admission when I had no intention of going to college. I have been in college ever since. My sisters and brother—Susan, Diane, and Lee—were present at my college graduation, and Lee and Alice even made it to my dissertation defense. 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... 5 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 1: Beowulf: Performing Masculinity for Men ..................................................... 13 The Audience of Beowulf ............................................................................................. 14 Episode I: A Pervasively Masculine World .................................................................. 16 The Generative Masculine Voice .............................................................................. 19 Unmasculine Speech ................................................................................................. 25 Mastering the Monstrous Boy ................................................................................... 27 From Boy to Man ...................................................................................................... 32 Episode 2: Mastering the Feminine .............................................................................. 34 Foreshadowing the Failure of Exclusively Masculine Action .................................. 35 Hildeburh and the Destructive Violence of Revenge................................................ 37 Wealhtheow: A Powerful Feminine Presence .......................................................... 39 The Threat of the Monstrous Woman ....................................................................... 50 The Masculine Response .......................................................................................... 58 Crossing the Threshold into Manhood ...................................................................... 66 Hrothgar’s Advice: The Past Informing the Future .................................................. 71 Returning Home a Man ............................................................................................. 75 Chapter 2: Redefining Masculinity in the Twelfth Century ............................................. 81 Chivalric Masculinity ................................................................................................ 83 Courtly Love ............................................................................................................. 88 Safeguarding the Social Order: Aristocratic Marriage ................................................. 93 Primogeniture ............................................................................................................ 93 Disorder in the Court: The Juvenes .......................................................................... 94 Safeguarding the Divine Order: Church Reform .......................................................... 97 Triumph of the Ecclesiastical Model ...................................................................... 101 The Marital Bond .................................................................................................... 103 8 The Bond of Love (Caritas) .................................................................................... 105 Internalization of Choice ......................................................................................... 109 Chapter 3: Erec ET