25 November 2019 GEO - 80436 A place-based cognitive approach to understanding wildlife tourism A MIXED METHODS CASE STUDY OF THE REINDEER OF THE CAIRNGORMS NATIONAL PARK, SCOTLAND, AND THEIR TOURISM Michael A. Cacciapaglia Reg. # 810331-154-100 Supervisors: Dr. Ir. MH Jacobs & Dr. J de Koning Examiner: Prof. Dr. EH Huijbens MSC TOURISM, SOCIETY & ENVIRONMENT | WAGENINGEN UNIVERSITY & RESEARCH CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY CHAIR GROUP | DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES ABSTRACT Nature-based tourism has become common around the world. Wildlife tourism is a subset of nature-based tourism that is generally considered the most popular form of animal-based tourism. A cognitive approach to understanding which perceptions people have for wildlife and wildlife tourism may enhance the management of human-animal interactions and of the destinations in which they occur. The elicitation of place meanings can spatially embed that approach in a particular landscape. Spatial embeddedness adds nuance to the constellation of values, beliefs, attitudes, and norms which constitute the relationships formed between humans and animals in tourism experiences. Therefore, this research assumed a place-based cognitive approach to investigate a unique and popular form of wildlife tourism based on a reindeer herd that was introduced in 1952 and now resides in the Cairngorms National Park of the central Scottish Highlands. That approach was operationalized through an exploratory sequential mixed methodology in two phases. Phase 1 was a qualitative elicitation study of key reindeer stakeholders selected via network sampling. A qualitative analysis technique, known as ‘rapid identification of themes from audio recordings’, was chosen due to time constraints on fieldwork. The analysis revealed nine coding themes that were then deductively organized into two categories: 1) psychosocial meanings of reindeer, and 2) evaluations of their environmental consequences in the Cairngorms. Together these two constructs formed the Reindeer Cognitions scale. The wildlife value orientations (Domination/Mutualism), along with another cognition (perception of reindeer identity) and two personal characteristics of stakeholders, place of residence and their personal experiences with the Cairngorms reindeer, also emerged from analysis as relevant to the context and worth further investigation. Findings from Phase 1 were immediately used to design a bespoke survey instrument, a questionnaire customized exactly for the empirical context of this case study, used in the subsequent quantitative study, Phase 2. The questionnaire also tested the standardized Wildlife Value Orientations (WVO), valued for its predictive validity and generalizability across cultural contexts. Phase 2 data were analyzed by descriptive and inferential statistical testing in IBM SPSS. Overall, most respondents viewed the Cairngorms reindeer as wildlife or semi-domesticated animals. They agreed that reindeer have high social and economic importance and should continue to roam free. They somewhat disagreed that reindeer have negative environmental impacts or that their management should be changed at this time. The two components of Reindeer Cognitions (psychosocial meanings and environmental consequences) exhibited a highly significant relationship with one another and were inversely correlated. The WVO scale proved reliable in a new cultural context, and the value orientations were significantly related to Reindeer Cognitions. However, the WVO’s only explained only a small amount of their variance, impairing the scale’s predictive validity in this case. In contrast, the perception of reindeer identity strongly influenced Reindeer Cognitions and was itself influenced by personal characteristics in turn. One such characteristic, reindeer experiences, had a substantial effect on both perception of reindeer identity and Reindeer Cognitions. KEYWORDS: wildlife tourism; reindeer; cognitive hierarchy; place meanings; wildlife value orientations; mixed methods; Cairngorms national park. i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My gratitude goes, first and foremost, to my lovely wife Christine whose patience knows no bounds. Without your support, I never would have finished this thing. And of course, during your field visit in October ‘18, you helped me collect surveys up and down the Glenmore Corridor, making an otherwise lonely task somewhat more pleasant on those rainy, blustery Highland days. I raise a glass of Shackleton to your health, my dear! I have so many people to thank. My thesis report was a group effort from beginning to end. Dr. Jessica de Koning initially recruited me for this social aspect of the Cairngorms Reindeer Research and served as my original supervisor. Jessica, thank you for your steadfast guidance, support, and listening ear as I muddled my way through things. It was especially fun that you and your family were able to visit while I was doing fieldwork. Speaking of which, Dr. Louise de Raad at Inverness College-UHI ran the ecological side of the project and acted as my field supervisor. She helped me immensely from finding accommodation to fine-tuning the research design through her local expertise to feeding me dinner with her sweet family. I can’t thank you enough for creating this project and this opportunity for me. Finally, Dr. Ir. Maarten Jacobs became a co-supervisor as well. Thank you for lending your expertise in survey design and for encouraging me all throughout the difficult task of mastering SPSS and conducting my first statistical analysis. You were more than generous with your time and advice. A special thanks to Dr. Kathy Fletcher and Rowland Fraser who welcomed me into their homes during my fieldwork. You both gave me a true taste of old-fashioned Highlands hospitality, for which I am grateful. I hope to return the favor someday; you are welcome in Holland, or wherever I may land, anytime. And last but not least, I must sincerely thank Tilly and Fiona Smith and all the reindeer herders and staff at the Reindeer Centre in Glenmore. You generously welcomed me into your home and fed me cookies and tea after cold, wet Hill Trips. You graciously answered my endless questions and helped me figure things out (which I am still working on as of this writing). Heck, you even gave me the honor of schlepping heavy sacks of reindeer feed up the hill to earn my keep and contribute just a little bit to the well-being of your herd. Thank you all, but especially Tilly, for sharing your knowledge and passion for those gentle, funny beasts. Wishing you all the best in your unique endeavor nestled out there in the Cairngorms. Slàinte mhath! Michael Cacciapaglia Wageningen, November 2019 ii Table of Contents ABSTRACT i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii List of Figures v List of Tables v List of Abbreviations vi INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background and Problem Statement 1 1.1.1 General Background 1 1.1.2 Empirical Context of the Case Study 3 1.1.3 Current conservation issues of the Cairngorms 4 1.1.4 Background summary and problem statement 5 1.2 Introduction of research design, objectives, questions and hypotheses 6 1.2.1 Introduction of a mixed-method design 6 1.2.2 Scientific Objectives 8 1.2.3 Phase 1 Research Questions 8 1.2.4 Phase 2 Hypotheses 9 1.3 Structure of the report 9 QUALITATIVE STUDY 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Theoretical Framework 11 2.2.1 A cognitive approach to understanding reindeer 11 2.2.2 The Sociocultural Landscape 15 2.2.3 Conclusion - A Conceptual Model for Phase 1 16 2.3 Qualitative Methods 17 2.3.1 Data collection via semi-structured interviews 17 2.3.2 Procedure for qualitative data analysis 19 2.4 Qualitative Results 21 2.4.1 Themes used in RITA procedure 21 2.4.2 Data supporting themes 22 2.5 Discussion of qualitative study results 38 2.5.1 Themes and subthemes 38 2.5.2 Implications for Phase 2 of research 41 2.5.3 Limitations of Qualitative Methodology 42 2.6 Conclusion: Bridging the two phases of research 44 QUANTITATIVE STUDY 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Theoretical Framework 45 iii 3.2.1 The Cognitive Hierarchy, revisited 45 3.2.2 Wildlife Value Orientations 46 3.2.3 Place Meanings 47 3.2.4 A conceptual model for Phase 2 47 3.3 Quantitative Methods 49 3.3.1 Data collection via structured questionnaire 49 3.3.2 Procedure for quantitative data analysis 54 3.4 Quantitative Results 58 3.4.1 Characteristics of the sample 59 3.4.2 Descriptive overview of the variables 61 3.4.3 Analyses of scales 69 3.4.4 Testing relationships between variables 75 3.5 Discussion of quantitative study results 93 3.5.1 Reindeer Cognitions 93 3.5.2 Factors influencing Reindeer Cognitions 94 3.5.3 Limitations of Quantitative Methodology 97 3.5.4 Summary of hypothesis testing and a revised conceptual model 99 3.6 Conclusion 101 COMPARATIVE DISCUSSIONS & CONCLUSIONS 102 4.1 Introduction 102 4.2 Objectives and Conclusions 102 4.3 Comparative Discussion of Findings 104 4.4 Mixed Methodological Discussion 107 4.4.1 Strengths 107 4.4.2 Challenges 108 4.5 Contributions of the Results 109 4.5.1 Scientific contributions 109 4.5.2 Practical relevance 110 4.6 Suggestions for Future Research 111 REFERENCE LIST 114 APPENDIX A. INTERVIEW GUIDE 120 APPENDIX B. INTERVIEW PARTICIPANT KEY 122 APPENDIX C. EXAMPLE OF COMPLETED RITA CODING FORM 123 APPENDIX D. SURVEY INSTRUMENT 124 APPENDIX E. ADDITIONAL QUALITATIVE DATA 127 iv List of Figures Figure 1. The cognitive hierarchy framework 12 Figure 2. A simple conceptual model illustrating the synthesis of theoretical frameworks 16 Figure 3. Steps in rapid identification of themes from audio recordings (RITA) 20 Figure 4. Conceptual model of Reindeer Cognitions 48 Figure 5. Survey sampling sites in the Glenmore Forest Park, CNP 50 Figure 6. Sampling sites of the upper Glenmore area 51 Figure 7. Sampling site for local residents across Badenoch & Strathspey 52 Figure 8. Place of residence by % of total sample 59 Figure 9.