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Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6” x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. Bell & Howell Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with with permission permission of the of copyright the copyright owner. owner.Further reproductionFurther reproduction prohibited without prohibited permission. without permission. LATE PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY IN SOUTHEASTERN SCOTLAND by Alicia L. Wise A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Anthropology. Chapel Hill 2000 Approved by Advison^fofi ~ole L. Crumley ‘ofessor Joel Gunn Reader: Professor Clark Larsen ReaderIMfRr- Professor Vincas Steponaitis Reader: Professor Bruce Winterhaldcr Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number 9993397 Copyright 2000 by Wise, Alicia Lynn All rights reserved. ___ ® UMI UMI Microform9993397 Copyright 2001 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ©2000 Alicia L. Wise ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT ALICIA L. WISE: Late Prehistoric Settlement and Society in Southeastern Scotland (Under the direction of Carole L. Crumley.) A study of protohistoric human ecology and societal response to change in cultural and natural environments was undertaken in the Scottish Borders. Specific objectives of the research program were to: 1) Collate archaeological and paleoenvironmental evidence, 2) Conduct targeted geophysical survey and excavation to fill some major gaps, 3) Analyse this evidence in order to look for patterns in site distributions, 4) Develop a paleoclimate model, 5) Construct an historical model of change through time, and 6) Present a preliminary explanation based on anthropological principles. New information about the construction and layout o f many native sites was gained through geophysical survey. Settlement pattern analysis supplied the first assessment of settlement evidence in central Tweeddale gathered in general surveys that took place in the 1890s and the 1950s. This analysis provided a bridge from site-specific detail to a regional framework informed by anthropological and other social theory. Fieldwork elucidated the nature of both native and Roman archaeology. There is evidence for indigenous cultural maintenance despite the expansion of the Roman empire. There appears to have been little contact between the Roman military and the local population, and what contact there was may have been relatively peaceful. Stability in the face of expanding empire was partly due to embededness in the landscape and a resilient subsistence strategy well adapted to the changing maritime climate. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In loving memory of Tom Hargrove iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research would not have been possible without a wide variety of colleagues and friends. All o f my advisors at UNC worked very hard keeping track of me and reading drafts, especially Carole Crumley who has been an ideal supervisor. Access to data collected by members of the Newstead Research Project was essential and thanks are due Rick Jones, Simon Clarke, Kate Clark, Paul Cheetham, and John Dent. The excavation at Lilliesleaf was sponsored by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland with additional support from the Trimontium Trust. Mr. F. Forster kindly granted access to the site, and Mr. Tel deBorder allowed us to do flotation in his garden. Simon Clarke and John Dent were, as ever, a pleasure to work with. Field school students who worked so hard on this excavation were Ruth Appleby, Deslin Azeez, John Bishop, Sally Brown, Tamsin Collins, Charles Humbach, Claire Leaver, Aaron Miller, Finley Patterson, and Amanda Tickner. A variety of other very welcome volunteers helped including Donald Gordon, Bill Lonie, Walter Elliott, Mark Colston, Penny Johnson, James Knightley, Bill Maclennan, Scott Sibbald, Jennifer Thomson, Lindsey Webster, and Anne Wilde. Lisa Yeoman analyzed the faunal assemblage. Access to the field north o f Newstead fort for geophysical survey and excavation was graciously supplied by the landowners, Viscount Devonport and Colonel Younger. Financial support was provided by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland and the Trimontium Trust. Field equipment was supplied by the Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford. Permission to work on this scheduled monument was granted by Historic Scotland. The project was co-directed by Simon Clarke and Abigail Tebbs, and the geophysical survey was supervised by Ian Barnes. Thanks are also due to the hard working students and volunteers who so ably excavated in 1996: Walter Elliot, Donald Gordon, Stuart Herkes, Bill Lonie, Maaike Groot, Carol Fenner, Emma Kicks, Cassie McGinley, Alex Odlin, Hazel Slatter, Paul Stead, and Angharad Williams. The survey at Oakendean House was funded by a Grant in Aid of Research from Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society. Equipment was provided by the Department of Archaeological Sciences at the University of Bradford. Access to the land was kindly granted by Lord Devonport. Thanks are also due to Mr. Robin Nisbet and his colleagues for their cooperation and helpfulness in moving hay bales. Paul Cheetham provided the aerial photograph rectification and Ian Barnes, Simon Clarke, and Abigail Tebbs volunteered their time and energy to do fieldwork in the snow and hail. We all "enjoyed" doing this survey in awful weather and a truer mark of friendship is hard to imagine. v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Some research that contributed to this dissertation was undertaken while I was a fellow in the Climate, People and Environment Program at the University of Wisconsin’s Climatic Research Center. Discussions with Jon Foley, John Kutzbach, and Trisha Thorme were particularly interesting and formative. Reid Bryson was especially inspirational, and special thanks are due him for creating the climate models in Chapter 5. Ian Barnes, Carole Crumley, Steve Driscoll, Jan Harding, Colin Haselgrove, and Leslie Machines all made extremely helpful comments on early drafts of this text. Richard Tipping kindly provided a huge stack of pre-prints, and Vince Gaffney led me to the bell hooks quote at the end of Chapter 6. Peter Halls, Paul Miller, and Leigh Symonds provided saintly guidance in the arcane ways of Arc/Info. All friends are golden. Some (especially Alex, Ian, Jennie, Martha, and Rachel) are coated in an amazing mark-resistant tephlon of wacky fun. Colin Tosh is superb at data entry - those aphids taught him well. Strangely I feel as if the kindred spirits of David Clarke, George Jobey, and Ian Smith have kept me company. That probably sounds arrogant, but I mean it to sound spooky. CANMORE-Web has become a great friend during the course of my research— thank you very much Diana Murray and RCAHMS. Family members (even the furry ones) supportively put up with high levels o f stress, anxiety, and debt for 9 years. Ian Barnes, my dearly loved husband, has bom the majority of this burden. Not only is he sweetness personified, but he really cooks and can make even archaeological science interesting. The highest mark of respect I can pay him is to say that empiricism is no bad thing after all. Still, thank goodness for Paul Feyerabend. VI Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. Introduction..............................................................................................................................