School of Media, Creative Arts and Social Inquiry Rethinking energy development to prioritise equity: The case of Cambodia Maureen Ann Boyle This thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Sustainable Development Of Curtin University June 2021 Declaration To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgement has been made. This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university. Human Ethics The research presented and reported in this thesis was conducted in accordance with the National Health and Medical Research Council National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007) – updated March 2014. The research study received human research ethics approval from Curtin University Human Research Ethics Committee (EC00262) Approval number – HRE2017-0216 Signature: Date: 7 June 2021 Contents Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... iii Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... iv Figures and tables ....................................................................................................................... vi Abbreviations..............................................................................................................................vii Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Context and research question .............................................................................................. 1 1.2 Research significance ........................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Summary of findings ............................................................................................................ 7 1.4 Outline and summary of chapters ......................................................................................... 9 Chapter 2: Review of literature ................................................................................................. 13 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 13 2.2 Development theory ........................................................................................................... 14 2.3 Modernization theory and industrialization ......................................................................... 22 2.4 Energy transitions and regime resistance ............................................................................ 30 2.5 Niches as spaces for innovation .......................................................................................... 35 2.6 Energy justice and equity perspectives on energy transitions .............................................. 37 Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................ 41 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 41 3.2 Discourse theory as a methodology .................................................................................... 41 3.3 Textual analysis of key policy documents ........................................................................... 43 3.4 Interviews with transnational energy sector actors in Cambodia.......................................... 44 3.5 Observation of energy practices and a solar micro-grid project ........................................... 47 3.6 Considering an equitable framework for energy services in Cambodia ................................ 49 Chapter 4: Energy and development discourse in Cambodian policy texts............................. 50 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 50 4.2 Energy situation in Cambodia and regional influence ......................................................... 50 4.3 International policy commitments ...................................................................................... 56 4.4 Selection and analysis of data ............................................................................................. 57 4.5 Development and poverty related discourse ........................................................................ 58 4.6 Energy and electricity supply related discourse................................................................... 67 4.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 74 Chapter 5: Energy needs ........................................................................................................... 76 5.1 Growing energy needs........................................................................................................ 76 5.2 People’s energy needs ........................................................................................................ 81 i Chapter 6: Energy Crisis or Excess? ........................................................................................ 87 6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 87 6.2 Daily life in Phnom Penh under extended power shortages ................................................. 88 6.3 Cambodia situated in an interconnected region ................................................................... 94 Chapter 7: Growing energy consumption in a micro grid energy project ............................. 100 7.1 Introduction and context ................................................................................................... 100 7.2 Levels of energy access and solar home systems in Cambodia .......................................... 102 7.3 Matching energy systems with needs ................................................................................ 105 7.4 Challenges with energy access in rural Cambodia ............................................................. 108 7.5 Solar micro grid project site ............................................................................................. 111 7.6 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 120 Chapter 8: Transnational energy discourse in Cambodia ...................................................... 124 8.1 Discourse by energy actors in Cambodia .......................................................................... 124 8.2 Discourse by a regime actor – Electricite du Cambodge.................................................... 136 8.3 Reliability and affordability storylines .............................................................................. 140 8.4 Challenges for transnational energy actors to influence energy development in Cambodia 157 Chapter 9: Prioritising equity in Cambodia’s energy development ....................................... 163 9.1 Conclusion and main findings .......................................................................................... 163 9.2 Significance and limitations of research ........................................................................... 169 9.3 Recommended future research ......................................................................................... 172 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 174 Appendices ............................................................................................................................... 198 Appendix 1 – Cambodian policy coded themes ...................................................................... 198 ii Acknowledgements Firstly, my appreciation and thanks goes to my supervisor, Dr Thor Kerr. Thor’s guidance and encouragement to keep writing has been of great support to me in finishing this thesis. I have valued Thor’s knowledge and constructive feedback on my thesis, and his timely responses were always appreciated. I would also like to thank co-supervisor, Dr Asif Siddiqui and thesis committee chair, Professor Dora Marinova. I also thank Curtin University for funding that was provided through the Curtin University Postgraduate Scholarship to undertake this research. My heartfelt thanks and appreciation are given to my friends in the PhD cooperative; Samya Jabbour, Sara Martins, Dr Pilar Kasat and Adrian Glamorgan for their friendship and support. I would also like to thank my friends and family and Dr Barry Tapp, a friend and mentor who has provided encouragement and advice throughout this journey. There are many people to thank in Cambodia. I would like to particularly thank Dr Heng Pheakdey, for the opportunity to write a published chapter on the future of energy in Cambodia with him, and Future Forum for making that happen. I would also like to acknowledge all interview participants for their time, honesty and insight. Most importantly, I would like to thank Cambodian people who I met throughout this research. I am grateful for the knowledge I gained and the people I met while in Cambodia,