Equality and Human Rights Commission Research report 34 Sexual orientation research review 2008 Martin Mitchell, Charlie Howarth, Mehul Kotecha and Chris Creegan NatCen Sexual orientation research review 2008 Martin Mitchell, Charlie Howarth, Mehul Kotecha and Chris Creegan Equality and Human Rights Commission 2009 First published Autumn 2009 ISBN 978 1 84206 113 8 Equality and Human Rights Commission Research Report Series The Equality and Human Rights Commission Research Report Series publishes research carried out for the Equality and Human Rights Commission (the Commission) by commissioned researchers. The views expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Commission. The Commission is publishing the report as a contribution to discussion and debate. Please contact the Research Team for further information about other Equality and Human Rights Commission’s research reports, or visit our website: Research Team Equality and Human Rights Commission Arndale House The Arndale Centre Manchester M4 3AQ Email: [email protected] Telephone: 0161 829 8500 Website: www.equalityhumanrights.com You can download a copy of this report and the full report as a PDF from our website: www.equalityhumanrights.com 2 CONTENTS TABLES 12 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 13 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 14 FOREWORD 15 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 19 1 INTRODUCTION 36 1.1 Aims and objectives 36 1.2 Coverage and approach 37 1.3 Context 38 2 MEASURING SEXUAL ORIENTATION – DEFINITIONS AND SIZE 39 2.1 User need for national and local statistics 39 2.1.1 Limited amount of robust and reliable statistical data 39 2.1.2 User need in relation to the Census and social surveys 40 2.1.3 Methodological issues in relation to Census and surveys 41 2.1.4 Political and moral context 46 2.2 Defining and measuring sexual orientation 50 2.2.1 Conceptualising sexual orientation 50 2.2.2 Sexual orientation and sexual identity 53 2.2.3 Questions on sexual orientation and sexual identity 56 2.3 Existing Census and administrative data 59 2.3.1 The Census and same sex cohabiting households 59 2.3.2 Civil partnerships 60 2.3.3 Concerns about making inferences from existing data sources 62 2.4 Working estimates of size of the LGB population 62 3 2.4.1 Estimates by government departments and ONS 63 2.4.2 National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles 64 2.4.3 Other surveys 67 2.4.4 Local estimates 68 2.5 Gaps and conclusions 69 3 ATTITUDES TOWARDS LGB PEOPLE 72 3.1 The nature of attitudes towards LGB people 73 3.1.1 Changes in attitudes towards LGB people 73 3.1.2 Continuing negative attitudes 75 3.2 Factors linked to discriminatory attitudes 78 3.2.1 Homophobia, heterosexism and the ‘heterosexual assumption’ 78 3.2.2 Factors linked to the development of homophobic attitudes 80 3.2.3 Perpetuation or reduction of negative attitudes 85 3.3 Best practice in reducing negative attitudes 91 3.4 Conclusions and gaps 93 4 FAMILIES AND RELATIONSHIPS 96 4.1 Legislative context 96 4.1.1 Recognition of same sex couples 96 4.1.2 Parenting rights 99 4.1.3 Adoption and fostering 100 4.1.4 Assisted conception 101 4.1.5 Sperm donors and birth registration 102 4.1.6 Custody after divorce 102 4.2 Patterns of LGB families 103 4.2.1 Number of LGB families 103 4.2.2 Context of research on same sex couples 104 4.2.3 Stability and longevity of same sex relationships 105 4.2.4 LGB households 107 4.2.5 Support networks and families of choice 108 4.3 Civil partnerships 109 4 4.3.1 Concerns about gay ‘marriage’ and civil partnerships 110 4.3.2 Positive views and impacts of civil partnership 114 4.3.3 Popularity of civil partnerships 116 4.4 Reviews of LGB parenting 117 4.4.1 The context of the reviews 117 4.4.2 Reviews of research of LGB parenting 120 4.5 Other research on LGB parenting 123 4.5.1 Impact of LGB parenting on child development 124 4.5.2 Lesbian mothers 125 4.5.3 Gay fathers 126 4.5.4 Fostering and adoption 127 4.5.5 Birth registration 129 4.5.6 Children of LGB parents 130 4.6 Best practice 131 4.7 Conclusions and research gaps 134 5 EDUCATION 137 5.1 Legislative and policy context 137 5.2 General issues in schools and training 142 5.3 Homophobic bullying 144 5.3.1 Levels of homophobic bullying in schools 144 5.3.2 Nature of homophobic bullying in schools 145 5.3.3 The effects of homophobic bullying 147 5.3.4 Reasons for the persistence of homophobic bullying in schools 148 5.4 Homophobic bullying of young people outside of schools 151 5.5 Impact of homophobia in schools on teachers 152 5.6 Best practice 153 5.7 Conclusions and research gaps 157 5 6 EMPLOYMENT AND TRAINING 159 6.1 Legislative context 159 6.2 General research on experiences of LGB employment 161 6.2.1 Size of the LGB workforce 161 6.2.2 General patterns of discrimination and inequalities 162 6.2.3 General findings broken down sub-nationally 166 6.2.4 General findings intersecting with other communities 166 6.2.5 LGB incomes, socio-economic position 167 6.3 Research relating to the impact of the Employment Regulations 169 6.3.1 Number of sexual orientation complaints 170 6.3.2 Symetricality and discrimination against people ‘on the grounds of’ sexual orientation 171 6.3.3 Cases of discrimination against LGB people 172 6.3.4 Intersection of sexual orientation and religion and belief 176 6.3.5 Outcomes of sexual orientation discrimination cases 180 6.3.6 Organisational and managerial handling of sexual orientation complaints 182 6.4 Monitoring sexual orientation discrimination in employment 186 6.5 Best practice 189 6.6 Conclusions and research gaps 191 7 HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE 194 7.1 Legislative and policy context 195 7.1.1 Legislation 195 7.1.2 Inclusion and exclusion in health and social care policies 196 7.2 Quantity, quality and focus of information 198 7.2.1 Scope of the information and research 199 7.2.2 Focus on negative aspects of LGB health 201 7.2.3 Diversity, intersectionality and health 202 7.3 Access to health and social care 202 6 7.3.1 Fear of Disclosure 203 7.3.2 Barriers to Access 207 7.4 Physical health 211 7.4.1 Smoking 214 7.4.2 Alcohol 215 7.4.3 Drugs 216 7.4.4 Obesity, Body Image and Eating Disorders 218 7.4.5 Cancers 218 7.5 Mental health 220 7.5.1 Level of mental health problems 220 7.5.2 Reasons for mental health problems 222 7.5.3 Deliberate self-harm 222 7.5.4 Suicide and parasuicide 223 7.5.5 Importance of affirmative support for good mental health 224 7.6 Sexual health 226 7.6.1 Gay and Bisexual Men and Sexual Health 227 7.6.2 Lesbian and Bisexual Women and STIs 229 7.7 Monitoring LGB patients 230 7.8 Best practice 231 7.8.1 Policy initiatives, guidance and general resources 232 7.8.2 Training, development and inclusivity 235 7.9 Conclusions and research gaps 237 8 LOCAL AUTHORITIES 241 8.1 Overview 241 8.2 Policy and legislative context 242 8.2.1 General policy context 242 8.2.2 Legislative context 244 8.3 Local authority policy and practice 247 8.4 Best practice 250 8.5 Conclusions and research gaps 251 7 9 HOUSING 253 9.1 Nature of housing issues 253 9.1.1 Harassment and Abuse 254 9.1.2 Tenancy Problems 256 9.2 Access to housing and housing services 256 9.3 LGB young people and homelessness 256 9.4 LGB older people and the loss of independent living 260 9.5 Best practice 262 9.6 Conclusions and research gaps 265 10 HATE CRIME, POLICING AND SAME-SEX VIOLENCE 268 10.1 Legislative context 268 10.2 Homophobic hate crime and incidents 271 10.2.1 Patterns of hate crime and incidents 272 10.2.2 Reporting of homophobic hate crime 278 10.3 Same-sex violence 281 10.3.1 Male rape 281 10.3.2 Domestic abuse in same-sex relationships 282 10.4 Best practice 284 10.5 Conclusions and research gaps 287 11 MEDIA, SPORTS, ARTS AND LEISURE 290 11.1 Media 290 11.2 Sport 293 11.3 Arts 294 11.4 Leisure 295 8 11.5 Best practice and recommendations 296 11.6 Conclusions and research gaps 298 12 PARTICIPATION AND REPRESENTATION OF LGB PEOPLE 300 12.1 Overview 300 12.2 LGB people’s participation in local communities 301 12.2.1 Identifying LGB communities 302 12.2.2 Communicating with LGB groups 304 12.2.3 Building LGB community capacity 307 12.2.4 Promoting LGB interests to the wider community 310 12.3 LGB people’s participation in politics and trade unions 311 12.3.1 Politics 311 12.3.2 Trade unions 313 12.4 Best practice 314 12.5 Conclusions and research gaps 315 13 DIVERSITY IN THE LGB POPULATION 318 13.1 Researching diversity in the LGB population 318 13.1.1 Identifying diversity within the LGB population 319 13.1.2 An integrated approach to researching inequality? 323 13.2 Diversity and difference in the research literature 325 13.2.1 General overview 325 13.2.2 Bisexuality 327 13.2.3 Gender 328 13.2.4 Ethnicity 334 13.2.5 Disability 340 13.2.6 Age – young people 344 13.2.7 Age – older people 348 13.2.8 Religion and belief 354 13.2.9 Other issues – class, location, refugee status 363 13.3 Conclusions and research gaps 364 9 14 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS AND INITIATIVES 369 14.1 Challenging prejudice and discrimination and building good relations 369 14.1.1 Recognising and understanding the issues 370 14.1.2 Consultation 371 14.1.3 Developing national and local strategies 372 14.1.4 Proactive leadership and communication 373 14.1.5 Targeting opinion makers 376 14.1.6 Building links and good relations with other groups 378 14.2 Building and supporting capacity among LGB people 382 14.2.1 Building partnerships and capacity 383 14.2.2 Networks and forums 384 14.2.3 Information and support for LGB people 385 14.3 Policies, practices and training 386 14.3.1 Policies, audits and