CLASS-SPECIFIC ADVERTISING: A SEMIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF CLASS PORTRAYALS IN AMERICAN AND BRITISH MAGAZINE ADVERTISEMENTS BY CYNTHIA M. JIMES Bachelor of Science Oklahoma State University Stillwater, Oklahoma 1992 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE December, 1995 OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY CLASS-SPECIFIC ADVERTISING: A SEMIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF CLASS PORTRAYALS IN AMERICAN AND BRITISH MAGAZINE ADVERTISEMENTS Thesis Approved: Thesis Adviser I I PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study is a qualitative analysis which utilizes semiotics in order to determine how social classes are portrayed and presented by advertisers in both Great Britain and the United States. In most semiological analyses, which concentrate on signs and their meanings, cultural distinctions are of great importance, as the meaning of signs and symbols vary depending on which culture they are tied to. Despite the fact that Great Britain and the United States are both Western cultures, they are imagined to have varying degrees of class-consciousness. With this in mind, the basic assumption of this thesis is that despite the fact that Great Britain is considered class-conscious while America is not, the advertisements in both of these cultures will portray the working and middle classes in similar ways. In developing this thesis, special acknowledgments are owed to several people. I wish to express my appreciation first and foremost to my adviser, Dr. Maureen Nemecek, who gave me the encouragement and confidence to apply for a study abroad scholarship in England, which led to the development of this thesis. I am also grateful to Dr. Nemecek for her advice on doing a semiological analysis. This leads me to express my deep appreciation to the Bailey family, who provided the funds for my study in England. I would also like to thank Dr. DeDe Boden and Dr. Richard Elliott of Lancaster University in England, whose ideas all helped in the development and/or completion of this research. Furthermore, I would like to thank the remaining members of my committee-Dr. Charles Fleming for his methodological advice, and Dr. Charles Edgely for his theoretical advice. Finally, I would also like to express my appreciation to Don Forbes, who was both a mentor and a friend to me, and who first encouraged me to apply for graduate school. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1 Background ............................................................................................................ 1 Purpose and Significance of Study ........................................................................ 6 Organization of Study ............................................................................................. 6 Notes to Chapter One ............................................................................................. 8 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. ............................................................................... 10 Meaning ................................................................................................................ 10 Consumption and Class-Defined Consumers ....................................................... 19 Class-Specific Advertising ..................... '" ........................................................... 26 Class Structure, Class Differences, and Class-Consciousness in the US and UK. .......................................................... 29 Changes and Trends in Western Societies ............................................................ 36 Notes to Chapter Two ........................................................................................... 40 III. METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................ 52 Semiology: The Deconstruction of Advertisements ............................................ 52 Berger, Goffman, and Manning: Applying Semiotics .......................................... 56 Research Methodology ......................................................................................... 61 Definition of Terms. .............................................................................................. 62 Research Design ................................................................................................... 68 Data Collection Plan and Recording .................................................................... 80 Notes to Chapter Three......................................................................................... 82 IV. FINDINGS .................................................................................................................... 85 Type of Products ................................................................................................... 86 Method of Purchase .............................................................................................. 88 Appeals ................................................................................................................. 90 Discourse Types .................................................................................................... 95 Identities Established............................................................................................ 97 Design Style. ....................................................................................................... 103 Relationships Between the Elements.................................................................. 11 0 Notes to Chapter Four......................................................................................... 134 IV V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................. 135 Summary and Discussion of Research Findings ................................................ 135 Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 144 Suggestions for Further Research ...................................................................... 148 Notes to Chapter Five. ........................................................................................ 151 BIBLIOGRAPHy............................................................................................................. 153 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 158 APPENDIX A-ADVERTISEMENTS REPRESENTED IN SUMMARY OF ANALySIS ....................................................................................... 159 APPENDIX B-THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADVERTISING IN THE US AND UK .................................................................................................. 175 Notes to APPENDIX B ..................................................................................... 180 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page I. Products Advertised in American and British Middle- and Working-Class Magazines ......................................................................... 87 II. Method of Purchase for Products Advertised in American and British Middle- and Working-Class Magazines ........................................................... 89 III. Overall Appeals Used in American and British Middle- and Working-Class Magazines ......................................................................... 91 IV. Specific Appeals Used in American and British Middle- and Working-Class Magazines ......................................................................... 93 V. Discourse Types in American and British Middle- and Working-Class Magazines ......................................................................... 96 VI. Character Identities Established in American and British Middle- and Working-Class Magazines ......................................................................... 99 VII. Gender of Models in American and British Middle- and Working-Class Magazines ....................................................................... 10 1 VIII. Age of Models in American and British Middle- and Working-Class Magazines ....................................................................... 103 IX. The Presence or Absence of Axial Balance in American and British Middle- and Working-Class Magazines ......................................................... 1D4 X. TheProminence of Art and Text in American and British Middle- and Working-Class Magazines.............................................................................. 106 XI. Number of Words in American and British Middle- and Working- Class Magazines ............................................................................................. 107 XII. Camera Shots of Models in American and British Middle- and Working-Class Magazines ....................................................................... 109 VI Table Page XIII. Relationship Between Overall Appeals and Types of Products In American Middle-Class Magazines............................................................ 111 XlV. Relationship Between Overall Appeals and Types of Products In British Middle-Class Magazines ................................................................ 113 Xv. Relationship Between Overall Appeals and Types of Products In American Working -Class Magazines ......................................................... 114 XVI. Relationship Between