Fit to be a Man: Women’s Perspectives and Gender Relations among the Zeme Nagas of Assam Amanda Jane Bowden This work is licensed under CC BY 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2012 School of Social Science Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the General Award Rules of The University of Queensland, immediately made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Fit to be a Man: Women's Perspectives and Gender Relations among the Zeme Nagas of Assam by Amanda Bowden is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Statement of Contributions to Jointly Authored Works Contained in the Thesis No jointly-authored works. Statement of Contributions by Others to the Thesis as a Whole No contributions by others. ii Statement of Parts of the Thesis Submitted to Qualify for the Award of Another Degree None. Published Works by the Author Incorporated into the Thesis None. Additional Published Works by the Author Relevant to the Thesis but not Forming Part of it None. iii Acknowledgements This thesis has been made possible by many people to whom I owe much. My first thanks are to the Zeme people of North Cachar Hills, especially the Baptist colony of Laisong and staff and students of the Mount Zion English School, and the Nkuame family of New Kubing for offering generous hospitality over lengthy periods. I am grateful to the Eastern Zeme Mauzadar, Sri Nialungneing Jeme, and to Mr. I. Zeme of Lodiram for their permission to undertake research in their community. The Heraka colony of Laisong and school principal Mr Nchakambe Jeme; the citizens of Hereilo, especially Adeule’s family; the people of Hezailoa, Hangrum, Asalu, Mpoi, New Kubing, Ngaulong, and Tousem villages were especially kind and helpful. In particular, my deepest gratitude goes to Adeule without whom this research would not have been possible and Ameile for her loving care of my son. Heartfelt thanks also to Hiaduing, my ‘brothers’ Akum and Heupoing, and ‘parents’ Mrs Iheule and Mr Zinkeulang Nriame, and Alung, Ahung and Jonah who provided friendship and comfort in ‘the field’. I hope our dialogue and friendship continue. Asuiyida. Getting to the field required the support of many. The University of Queensland and the Australian Postgraduate Award funded much of the first field trip and my father, Jim Bowden, contributed significantly to the second journey. My supervisors at the time, Dr John Bradley and Dr David Hyndman contributed moral support and intellectual resources, and John offered valuable comments on a final draft. The encouragement of Dr Visier Sanyu, who I met in Melbourne, was instrumental in my decision to work with the Nagas. He introduced me to fellow Naga Temsu Longchari in Brisbane who withstood my eager questioning and initiated my love of Naga cuisine, and to Dr Alec Coupe and Pavitra Gurung who provided hospitality and information in Shillong. Visier also put me in touch with Niketu Iralu, an influential Naga peace-builder and through whom I first encountered ‘the Zemes’. In Shillong I was aided and encouraged by the anthropology staff at North-Eastern Hills University (NEHU), particularly Professor Tanka B. Subba, Dr Lucy Zehol and Dr H. Lamin. Through the friendship of Mr Hering Shangpliang I was able to obtain an important letter of endorsement from Sri R. Mehta, the Inspector General of Police in Meghalaya, enabling my research in North Cachar Hills. Thanks to the Naga Students’ Federation organisers, especially Niengelo Krome, for permission to attend the conference in Haflong and to the Zeme and other Zeliangrong hosts, most notably Christina and Lois Pame, and also to Ruth Jidung from the Dimasa community. Ultimately the iv authorisation of the Deputy Commissioners of Haflong of 2001 and 2004 allowed my research to go ahead and I am grateful to them. Arkotong Longkumer, through our emails as well as his publications, has helped me understand something more of Zeme cosmology, and Catriona Child, the daughter of anthropologist Ursula Graham Bower, kindly made her mother’s unpublished thesis available to me. In Australia my thanks go to my supervisor Dr Patricia Short who kindly stepped into the role after John and David left UQ and saw me through to the end. Her understanding, and exceptional clarity and insight, have been most helpful. Many thanks to Mrs Keitha Brown and the staff of the Graduate School for their understanding of my many changes of candidature; the staff of QADREC who allowed flexibility of work hours; Dr Tony Henderson who generously made vaccinations and medicines available; my mother, Pamela Bowden, for a multitude of assistance, such as supplying a computer, camera and other crucial equipment, as well as minding my son (with Davo Russell) on many weekends as the thesis submission date drew near; my favourite uncle, Dr Adrian Bowden, for his careful reading and perspicacious comments on the thesis draft; my dear friends Neil Flood whose mathematical brilliance was able to shed light on figures for literacy rates, and David Chadbone who provided moral, technical and babysitting support; and most of all, my beloved son Jadonang (Jadi) Bowden for whom, until now, the research and writing of this thesis has comprised the background of his whole life. v Abstract In many indigenous societies worldwide we are witnessing an increase in gender inequality. Men’s domination of women seems to be growing and women’s labour is now exploited. Zeme Naga women of Assam are lamenting the loss of support from their husbands and the burden of labour wives must take up as husbands abandon their responsibilities. Husbands are becoming more controlling. This thesis seeks to understand some of the reasons behind the decline in men’s reciprocal labour practices and the deterioration in what were once remembered as relatively egalitarian gender relations. By bringing critical, historical and feminist analyses to bear on the ethnographic data I attempt to show the ways in which women’s increasing sense of inequality is linked to Zemes’ growing marginalisation regionally and globally. I explore Zeme understandings of what makes a man ‘fit to be a man’ and the ways feminine and masculine identities engage the changes brought by colonialism and neo-colonialism. Women’s interests were once served by the Zeme patriarchal society. I found that women continue to expect reciprocal labour exchange that was based on social structures and practices that are now largely obsolete. Employing the notion of ‘hegemonic masculinity’ (Connell 2005a) it emerged that men’s earlier practices allowed an opportunity for nearly every man to achieve the Zeme ideals of masculinity which involved the demonstration of caring behaviour towards women and other members of the community. Masculinity was largely based on access to resources that men delivered to the community according to what the people were perceived to need. The notion of women and children as men’s ‘property’ entailed responsibility and self-sacrifice on behalf of men and a relatively equitable division of labour around child care. Indeed, the well-being of women and children was a constituent of Zeme normative masculinity. However, Zeme engagements with what may be termed the agents of ‘modernity’: economies, religions, agricultural projects, schooling and the creation of Statehood, have contributed to devaluing Zeme livelihoods and cosmologies. This has had significant repercussions for Zeme gender relations, which include relations among men, and is changing the direction of the pursuit of masculine ideals. I argue that these transformations have contributed to sidelining a core component of Zeme hegemonic masculinity, the ability to ‘provide what the people need’ as well as creating inequalities of opportunities for men to demonstrate ‘care’ in this way. On the other hand, these processes are also presenting new opportunities for women to contest men’s interests, and to make claims over community issues that were one avenues of prestige for men. vi Keywords zeme nagas, indigenous peoples, indigenous women, gendered labour, masculinities, modernity Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC) 160104 Social and Cultural Anthropology 70%, 169901 Gender Specific Studies