How is Islamophobia Institutionalised? Racialised Governmentality and the Case of Muslim Students in British Universities A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2011 Shaida-Raffat Nabi Social Sciences/Sociology Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………4 Declaration/Copyright Statement………………………………………………………….. 5 Abbreviations/OtherTerminology…………………………………………………………...6 Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………… 8 Chapter One: Managing Muslims 9 Part 1.1: Managing Muslims Students: Racialised Governmentality in Universities 9 Part 1.2: Managing Muslims: A Context…………………………………………….. 14 Part 1.3: Thesis Overview………………………………………………………......... 22 Chapter Two: Islamophobia, Racialised Governmentality and Institutionalised Racism 25 Part One: Defining Islamophobia…………………………………………………….26 Part Two: Racialised Governmentality and Islamophobia………………………….. 35 Part Three: ‘Institutional Racism’, Institutionalised Islamophobia…………………. 49 Chapter Three: Method(ologies) and the Campus Cases 61 Part One: A Research Journey………………………………………………………. 61 Part Two: Political Reflexivity………………………………………………………..79 Part Three: A ‘Race’ for Change?................................................................................ 87 Chapter Four: Hyper-Visibility and the Racialised Presence of Muslim 95 Students in Higher Education: A Historical and Contemporary Perspective Part One: ‘British Muslim’ ‘Fundamentalism’ and Muslim Students……………….. 96 Part Two: The ‘War on Terror’, Prevent and Muslim Students……………………... 115 2 Chapter Five: The ‘Absence’ of Muslims Students: No Muslims No Problem 130 Part One: Muslim Students and University Equality Structures……………………...131 Part Two: ‘Ethnic’ Monitoring and Muslim Students……………………………….. 134 Part Three: University Complaints Schema and Muslim Student Complainants……. 143 Chapter Six: ‘Space Invaders’: ‘Super/Vision’ and the Racialisation of Muslim Students in Union Politics 165 Part One: ‘Space Invaders’…………………………………………………………...166 Part Two: Disorientation to ...Disenfranchisement…………………………………..179 Chapter Seven: Multicultural Equality, Racialised Governmentality and 198 Institutionalised Islamophobia Part One: Including Muslim Students?......................................................................... 200 Part Two: Prayer-Room Politics…………………………………………………….. 211 Chapter Eight: Co-Articulating Islamophobia: Racialised Governmentality 239 in Universities Part 8.1: Racialised Discrepancies…………………………………………………. 239 Part 8.2: Recognising Muslims (as Supplement)……………………………………. 243 Part 8.3: ‘Control Racism’………………………………………………………...... 248 Part 8.4: Islam’s Excess…………………………………………………………….. 250 Chapter Nine: Key Themes and Contributions…………………………………...252 Appendices (A-F)) Appendix A: Consent Form……………………………………………………….… 262 Appendix B: Personal Information Questionnaire…..……………………………… 263 Appendix C: Interview Schedules; Student, Equality Staff and Union Officers…….. 264 Appendix D: Interviewees…………………………………………………………… 277 Appendix E: Muslim Student Interviewee Demographics……………………………279 Appendix F: Students from Countries With Muslim Populations…………………… 281 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………282 3 Abstract This thesis explores how Islamophobia is institutionalised in British universities. Focussing on Muslim students, this question is largely explored through empirical research using two case study universities. Each university was examined through key university functions; namely, ‘ethnic’ monitoring data under the Race Amendment (2000), union politics and welfare/observance provisions. The research involved semi-structured interviews with Muslim students who were in some way ‘active’ on campus, as well as university/union staff between 2004 and 2006. It also included some document analysis. It is argued that Islamophobia is institutionalised through its govermentalising function and is reflected in three key modes of ‘managing’ Muslim students; ‘absence’ (invisibility), ‘presence’ (hyper-visibility) and ‘inclusion’ (liberal multiculturalism). ‘Absence’ refers to the absence of Muslim students as a recognised collectivity within the formal structures of the university. Thus, it is argued, Muslim student concerns about racism fail to be formally registered and remain trivialised at anecdotal levels. ‘Presence’ refers to the hyper-visibility of Muslim students as a troublesome ‘fundamentalist’/’extremist’ cohort. This is exemplified through numerous historical and contemporary sector and state interventions, but also in student union politics. ‘Inclusion’ refers to liberal multicultural practices that regulate Muslim students. This is observed in equality practices (e.g. university provisions) in the university and the way they function to minoritise rather than equalise the status of Muslim students. What these modes of governance emphasise is the way Muslim students are the subject of and subjected to processes of racialised management, that is, regulation, discipline and normalisation. Each of these modes are explored through interviewee accounts/documents, and (in)formed by a recursive engagement with theories of racialised governmentality. It is argued that together, these modes of racialised governmentality signify the transgressive status of Muslims. They are also seen to reflect the broader political (in)visibility of Muslims in Britain and their awkward place within British multiculturalism. Influenced by ‘de-colonial’ thinking and activist-based research, the thesis has sought to develop a critique of dominant and racialised discourses about Muslim students in universities. This has involved the selective use of discursive techniques and a reflexive awareness of my own positioning with research. It has also involved cognizance of the way Muslim students and Muslim communities generally, have been perceived as ‘suspect’ and subject to increased securitisation. In the main however, the thesis has troubled the equality practices of universities and highlighted the way they are part of, not separate from, the problem of Islamophobia. 4 Declaration/Copyright Statement No Portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree of qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning. The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and s/he has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form part of any such copies made. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trade marks and other intellectual property (the “Intellectual Property”) and any reproductions of copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://www.campus.manchester.ac.uk/medialibrary/policies/intellectual- property.pdf), in any relevant Thesis restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Library’s regulations (see http://www.manchester.ac.uk/library/aboutus/regulations) and in The University’s policy on presentation of Theses. 5 Abbreviations BME ‘Black and Minority Ethnic’ CBMI Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia CRE Commission for Racial Equality CVCP Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals of the Universities of the United Kingdom DBIS Department for Business Innovation and Skills DCLG Department for Communities and Local Government ECU Equality Challenge Unit FOSIS Federation of Student Islamic Societies in the UK and Eire HE Higher Education HEFCE Higher Education Funding Council for England HEI Higher Education Institutions HESA Higher Education Statistics Agency HT Hizb ul-Tahrir ISOC Islamic Society JSOC Jewish Society NATFHE National Association of Teachers Further and Higher Education NUS National Union of Students PALSOC Palestinian Society PVE Preventing Violent Extremism OIA Office for Independent Adjudicators RRA Race Relations Act (1956/1968) RRAA Race Relations Amendment Act (2000) SCOP Standing Conference of Principals UUK Universities UK 6 Other Terminology Jamaah Congregation Jumma Friday Prayers Wudhu Ablution Hijab Headscarf Niqab Face-Veil Ramadhan The Month of Fasting Tarawiyya Ramadhan Prayers Umma Global Muslim community 7 Acknowledgements Bismillah hirrahmaa nirraheeem Much time has passed over the course of this thesis and there are many people who have come, gone, and stayed the length who deserve acknowledgement for their support and guidance. In no particular order, many thanks go to my supervisor