UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI NAPOLI FEDERICO II DIPARTIMENTO DI AGRARIA Tesi sperimentale per il conseguimento del titolo di Dottore di ricerca in Scienze e Tecnologie delle Produzioni Agro- Alimentari Calorie reduction in food: Sensory Performance of a New Sweetener and Fat Replacer Optimization Docente tutor: Candidata: Ch.ma Prof. Silvana Cavella Dott.ssa Nicoletta Antonella Miele Docente cotutor: Dott.ssa Rossella Di Monaco Coordinatore: Ch.mo Prof. Giancarlo Barbieri XXIV CICLO i To my family ii TABLE OF CONTENTS 0. Preface ...................................................................................................................................................................... 1 0.1. References ...................................................................................................................................................... 1 1. State of the art .......................................................................................................................................................... 2 1.1. Function of Lipids in Food ............................................................................................................................ 2 1.1.1. Food emulsion............................................................................................................................................. 2 1.1.1.1. Milk ................................................................................................................................................... 2 1.1.1.2. Yoghurt ............................................................................................................................................. 3 1.1.1.3. Cheese ............................................................................................................................................... 3 1.1.1.4. Margarine & Butter ........................................................................................................................... 3 1.1.1.5. Mayonnaise and other sauces ............................................................................................................ 3 1.1.1.6. Ice cream and whipped cream ........................................................................................................... 3 1.1.2. Meat and fish .............................................................................................................................................. 3 1.1.3. Baked goods ................................................................................................................................................ 3 1.2. Strategies for fat reduction ........................................................................................................................... 4 1.2. Fat reduction in food ..................................................................................................................................... 6 1.2.1. Whipped cream ........................................................................................................................................... 6 1.2.2. Ice cream ..................................................................................................................................................... 6 1.2.3. Mayonnaise ................................................................................................................................................. 6 1.2.4. Dairy-based food ......................................................................................................................................... 7 1.2.5. Meat and fish- based food ........................................................................................................................... 7 1.2.6. Baked goods ................................................................................................................................................ 8 1.3. Function of Carbohydrates in Food ............................................................................................................. 9 1.3.1. Low-molecular-weight saccharides ............................................................................................................ 9 1.3.1.1. Baked goods .................................................................................................................................... 10 1.3.1.2. Chocolate, coatings, filling .............................................................................................................. 10 1.3.1.3. Ice cream and foam ......................................................................................................................... 11 1.3.1.4. Candy .............................................................................................................................................. 11 1.3.1.5. Beverages ........................................................................................................................................ 11 1.4. Strategies for sugar reduction .................................................................................................................... 11 1.5. Sugar reduction in food ............................................................................................................................... 13 1.5.1. Beverages .................................................................................................................................................. 13 1.5.2. Ice cream ................................................................................................................................................... 13 1.5.3. Dessert ...................................................................................................................................................... 13 1.5.4. Baked goods .............................................................................................................................................. 14 1.5.5. Chocolate .................................................................................................................................................. 14 1.6. Aeration: a process to reduce calorie content of food ............................................................................... 14 1.7. References .................................................................................................................................................... 16 2. Aim of the thesis ..................................................................................................................................................... 20 3. I Study Case: Sensory characterization of a new sweet protein ........................................................................... 21 3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 22 3.2. Materials and Methods................................................................................................................................ 23 3.2.1. Detection (DT) and Recognition (RT) Thresholds ................................................................................... 23 3.2.1.1. Subjects ........................................................................................................................................... 23 3.2.1.2. Materials .......................................................................................................................................... 23 3.2.1.3. Preparation of MNEI protein solutions ........................................................................................... 23 3.2.1.4. Evaluation of MNEI thresholds ....................................................................................................... 24 3.2.1.5. Data analysis ................................................................................................................................... 24 3.2.2. Dynamic Evaluation and Sensory Performance ........................................................................................ 24 3.2.2.1. Assessors ......................................................................................................................................... 24 3.2.2.2. Stimuli ............................................................................................................................................. 24 3.2.2.3. Equisweetness determination .......................................................................................................... 24 3.2.2.4. Time intensity .................................................................................................................................. 25 3.2.2.5. Temporal Dominance of Sensation ................................................................................................. 25 iii 3.2.2.6. Data analysis ................................................................................................................................... 25 3.3. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 27 3.3.1. Detection and Recognition thresholds ...................................................................................................... 27 3.3.1.1. Mineral content effect ..................................................................................................................... 27 3.3.1.2. The serving