University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Arts Arts Research & Publications 2012-07-16T07:02:45Z Human Adaptation. Food Production. amd Cultural Interaction during the Formative Period in Highland Ecuador Zarrillo, Sonia http://hdl.handle.net/1880/49108 Thesis http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives 3.0 Unported Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Human Adaptation, Food Production, and Cultural Interaction during the Formative Period in Highland Ecuador by Sonia Zarrillo A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY CALGARY, ALBERTA JUNE, 2012 © SONIA ZARRILLO 2012 Abstract This dissertation focuses on plant food production, human adaptation, and cultural interaction in the highlands of Ecuador during the Formative Period. I conducted starch granule analysis of ceramic charred cooking and stone tool residues from some of the earliest Formative Period sites in the highlands, and one site from the eastern Andean slopes, to develop a regional synthesis of the timing and nature of highland plant food production. The main hypothesis tested is whether the stimulus to a Formative lifeway in the highlands diffused from coastal Ecuador. Sites investigated include La Chimba, Tajamar, Cerro Narrío, Chaullabamba, La Vega, Trapichillo, and Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF). I also integrate data from previous botanical analyses at other sites, especially Cotocollao. The analyses show that Andean domesticated crops, such as oca, potato, lupines (chocho/tarwi) and quinoa, as well as maize and beans, are associated with the highland sites located at, and to the north of, Chaullabamba (La Chimba, Tajamar, and Cerro Narrío). By employing site catchment analysis, I contend that a highland, “vertical compact”, agricultural system was being practiced at these sites by at least the terminal Early Formative period, and perhaps much earlier based on proxy (pollen) evidence and aspects of the plants’ nutritional profiles, which suggest long-standing familiarity with the crops. By integrating the latest information available on the crops’ origins, I argue that cultural interaction was perhaps principally occurring through the Inter-Andean corridor along a north-south axis with other highland groups. ii In contrast, the far southern highland sites (La Vega and Trapichillo), as well as SALF, show crops suited to a lowland tropical agricultural system, including manioc, sweet potato, Dioscorea (yam), as well as maize and beans and, possibly, cacao. The results from SALF date to almost the beginning of the Early Formative Period, showing that Coastal Ecuador was not the only “hotspot” for Early Formative Period societies. Cultural interaction in the far southern highlands shows an east-west axis of orientation. Groups in the highlands, eastern lowlands, and coast were involved in multiple interaction spheres. Highland agriculture and socio-political complexity developed in- situ, and not from unidirectional diffusion from coastal Ecuador. iii Acknowledgements The field work and research for this dissertation would not have occurred without the support of many people and sources of funding. During my studies I was honoured to receive the Dean’s Research Excellence Award, a SSHRCC CGS Scholarship, the Friend’s of Head-Smashed-In Scholarship (on two occasions), the Dean’s Entrance Scholarship, a SSHRCC Doctoral Fellowship, an Honorary Izaak Walton Killam Memorial Award, the Martha Biggar Anders Memorial Award (on three occasions), a University of Calgary Silver Anniversary Graduate Fellowship, a University of Calgary Graduate Research Scholarship, a University of Calgary Graduate Studies Scholarship, an International Fee Differential Travel Grant, a Faculty of Graduate Studies Travel Award, a Graduate Students Association Professional Development Grant, and a Student Activities Fund Travel Grant. In addition, I was particularly honoured to receive the J.B. Hyne Research Innovation Award. Without the generous financial support of these internal and external funding agencies and privately-supported awards, the many trips to Ecuador to conduct my research would not have been possible. My co-supervisors, Dr. J. Scott Raymond and Dr. Brian P. Kooyman, provided the inspiration, education, and drive, while I was still an undergraduate student, to continue with graduate studies. My journey into paleoethnobotany began with a course (that I took at the last minute, two weeks after the course began) with Brian. For a class project I undertook an analysis two stone tools, and instead of finding phytoliths, I found starch granules instead. This led to my honours thesis on ceramic residues from the Loma Alta site, supervised by Scott. I must admit that I wanted to study the Loma Alta stone iv tools, thinking that starch granules would not preserve through the original cooking events, but Scott wisely “insisted.” As such, both Scott and Brian have played more than a major role in the focus of my graduate research – they have both been my primary role models, mentors, and sources of endless support and patient encouragement. I particularly want to thank Scott for undertaking a field project in Ecuador at Cerro Narrío, at a time in his career when he very rightly did not have to, and Brian for always being there to listen to, and provide sage advice, on all aspects of my research. I would also like to thank all the members of my committee: Dr. Dale Walde and Dr. Richard Callaghan from the Department of Archaeology; Dr. Chendanda “CC” Chinnappa from the Department of Biological Sciences; and Dr. James Zeidler for acting as the external examiner. I very much enjoyed the discussions we had during my defense and benefitted greatly from the experience. The faculty and support staff of the Department of Archaeology are also deserving of praise. I can honestly say that all of my courses were valuable and inspiring. Over the years I also benefitted from many conversations with faculty I did not have the opportunity to take courses with. Thank you all for your help and support. I am also tremendously grateful to all of my friends and colleagues in Ecuador who facilitated and supported my research. Through the support of Diego Quiroga, the Universidad San Francisco de Quito (USFQ) provided much needed use of laboratory facilities in Riobamba. The excavations and work at Cerro Narrío would not have occurred without the co-direction of Dr. Florencio Delgado (USFQ). We were assisted v (and could not have managed without them) with excavations and survey by the Delgado brothers: Hernan, Danilo, Nivardo, and Alejandro. Fernando and Daniela Astudillo, as well as many others, also helped out with our excavations. Our 2009 field and lab work would not have happened without U of C students Lance Armstrong, Whitney Mosher, and William Swan, who kindly volunteered with excavations, cataloging and analysis. The city of Cañar also supported our excavations at Cerro Narrío, as well as, most importantly, the Cañari community of Quilloac. We were very fortunate and honoured to have their support, as well as assistance with excavations provided by Mariana and Santiago. The Museos Banco Central del Ecuador in Quito and Cuenca also provided access to artifacts, as well as the Instituto National de Patrimonio Cultural offices in Quito, Cuenca, and Loja, and I would like to especially thank Diego Castro, Danilo Delgado, Fernando Mejia, Joaquin Moscoso, Félix Alvear, and the late Antonio Carrillo. Without Antonio’s expert guidance and knowledge, it would have taken far more than one morning to sort through and choose samples from the Challuabamba collection. Victoria Domínguez suggested I sample some of the Tajamar artifacts. She also provided laboratory space at the Rumipamba Archaeological Park during sampling. I am very grateful for all her assistance. Dr. J. Stephen Athens entrusted me with numerous samples from La Chimba – I promise to sample more of them – thank you Stephen! I also wish to thank Dr. Michael Blake of the University of British Columbia. I have greatly benefitted from many conversations with him, and he also suggested that I investigate Theobroma as a source of some of my unknown starch granules. Finally, I am tremendously indebted to Francisco Valdez. He provided access to the artifacts and substantial help with logistics for sampling and travel to and from SALF. Francisco also located the long- vi sought-for Catamayo sites’ artifacts and, not only facilitated my access to them, but also helped me while I sampled them! In Calgary, I am very grateful to the students who volunteered in the paleobotany lab, especially Debbie Onos, Mary Lynn Tobias, and Adam Brousseau. I also wish to express my tremendous appreciation to Dr. Deborah Pearsall. From my first analysis with the Loma Alta ceramics, through to the completion of my dissertation, she has offered moral support, advice, comparative plant specimens, and hosted my visit to the University of Missouri. I have always been uplifted by her kind words. She is a true role model and friend, and embodies all that is good in academia. Finally, I wish to thank my family. My mother, sisters and brother have cheered me on; patiently waiting for the day I would be done. Thank you for your love and support. My husband Dugane Quon had to endure many untold hours of “discussion” about my coursework, field work, and lab work, and proofread far too many papers over the past 12 years – I only asked him to read one paragraph of this dissertation. Last, but most importantly and dearest to my heart, I want to thank my children, Jennifer, Nicholas, Matthew, and Emily. They sacrificed much over the past 12 years and I could not have done this without all of you. Whenever I was down and wanted to quit, cold, wet, and homesick in Ecuador, or just generally tired, I would think of all of you (or get a funny message or email) and know that I had to finish.