J. Zool., Lond. (2009) 300, 131-142 © 2009 The Zoological Society of London Printed in the United Kingdom DOI:10.1018/S0952201 Factors affecting lion (Panthera leo) home range, movement and diet in Waza National Park, Cameroon. H.D. Visser1*, L. Müller1, P.N. Tumenta1,2, R. Buij1,2, H.H. de Iongh1 1Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O.Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands 2 Centre for Environment and Development studies in Cameroon, Maroua/Department of Forestry, University of Dschang, PO Box 479, Dschang, Cameroon Abstract Key words: lions, habitats, home range, diet, movement INTRODUCTION pressure on the environment, lion habitat and prey de- creased and lions became less abundant and locally All over the world large carnivore populations are threatened (Bauer & Van de Merwe 2004). Bauer and under pressure from the increasing human popula- Van der Merwe (2004) estimated 16,500 – 30,000 free tion (Fuller, 1995; Nowell & Jackson, 1996). Threats ranging lions in all of Africa. to large carnivores include habitat loss, declining Although lions are threatened all over Africa, the In- natural prey populations and commercial exploita- ternational Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) tion, but most large carnivores are killed by people has listed the lion as Vulnerable on the global Red that defend their livestock (Woodroffe, 2001; Bauer, List (Bauer et al., 2008), populations in Southern Nowell & Packer, 2008). This conflict with livestock and East Africa seem to be quite viable and lions ex- owners is caused by the fact that carnivores have to ist in high densities locally (Bauer & ven der Mer- kill other animals to feed. In areas where wild prey we, 2004; Nowell & Jackson, 1996). Eastern Africa species are being replaced by livestock the conflict is counts 11,000 lions and Southern Africa 10,000. In intense (Ramakrishnan, Coss & Pelkey, 1999, Saber- Central and West Africa only 1800 lions are left and wal et al., 1994; Seidensticker, Christie & Jackson., populations are fragmented and declining (Bauer & 1999). When carnivores attack livestock, measures Van der Merwe, 2004). The population of lions over from livestock owners to protect their property are the past two decades has reduced by approximately inevitable. Often these measures include retaliatory 30% (Bauer et al., 2008). Only a few lion populations killing of the carnivores (Seidensticker et al., 1999; remain in protected areas with the largest in Central Woodroffe, 2000). African Republic (300) and second largest in Cam- A carnivore species that has suffered from conflict eroon (260). with humans in particular is the lion (Panthera leo) In Cameroon lions exist in two areas in the north: The (Patterson et al., 2004). In history lions were abundant Bénoué Ecosystem and Waza National Park (Bauer from Eurasia to Africa (Turner & Antón, 1997). When & De Iongh, 2005). In Waza National Park (WNP), human population expanded and pressure on the en- the research area of this study, lion population has de- vironment increased, lions disappeared from all of creased to the brink of extinction (Tumenta et al., in Europe and remained only in sub-Saharan Africa and press; De Iongh et al., 2009). In 1962, the lion popu- a small part of Asia (Nowell & Jackson, 1996). Due lation was estimated a 100 (Flizot, 1962), in 2001 at to human population growth and resulting increasing 50 (Bauer et al., 2003) and in 2008 only 14-22 lions were left (Kok, et al., 2008). The decreasing numbers of lions in WNP are mainly attributed to the increas- *All correspondence to: H.D. Visser, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O.Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, ing human activity in and outside the park that results The Netherlands. in prey base depletion and lion-livestock conflict (De E-mail: [email protected] Iongh & Bauer, 2008). The lion-livestock conflict is 2 H.D. VISSER ET AL. Table 1 Number of prey species at Waza National Park from 1962 – 2007. Table is modified from De Iongh et al. (2004) with ad- dition of data from Omondi et al. (2007) Only the main prey species of lions are includedd in the table. O = numbers based on regular observations in the park; T = transect; W = waterhole count; A = aereal survey; - = number unknown; * = number heavily underestimated. Jan- Dec- 1962 1977 1977 1988 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 2000 2001 2002 2007 Species O T T O W W W W/T T W A Kobus kob 25000 21993 13238 1700 2062 2573 4559 4517* 7665 1246* 9548 14489 1562 Damaliscus kor- 20000 749 605 - 1682 842 2395 720* 2198 236* 4284 7068 848 rigum Hippotragus 4000 349 223 - 1166 126 498 295* 1331 572 3868 5055 604 equinus Gazelle - 147 10 >300 621 455 440 204* 525 56* 593 228 28 rufifrons Phacochoerus 600- 675 200 - 38 3 61* 16* 298* 44* 575 47* 21 aethiopicus 700 Redunca arun- 2000 25 39 - 66 50 301 54* 70 9* - - dicum Kobus 200 - - - 0 0 0 0 0 0 - 0 defassa a well known problem all over Africa (Bauer et al., and activities also had an impact on the prey species 2008). Often lion habitats are surrounded by human of lions in WNP. All herbivore species have decreased settlements. Livestock forms a competition for wild drastically since 1965. In the 1960s WNP counted herbivores with reduction of the prey population as a 25,000 kobs, about 5000 in the 1990s and in 2007 result. Livestock is a relatively easy prey to catch and only 1500 in 2007. The same holds for topi, with with the intrusion of livestock into the living area of 20,000 in the 1960s, 2000 in the 1990s and less than lions, easy prey is presented. Lions kill livestock and 1000 in 2007. Less drastically is the decrease of the to protect their property, lions get killed by herdsmen. roan antelope population with 4000 in the 1960s, less Although livestock is relatively easy to catch and than 1500 in the 1990s and less than 1000 in 2007 present in high numbers in WNP, it is not preferred as (Table 1). The southern reedbuck and defassa water- food source (Van Rijssel et al., 2008). buck have become locally extinct since the 1960s (De The negative effects of increased human population Iongh, Bauer & Hamling, 2004). In the late 1970s a 30,000 Roan 25,000 Western kob Topi 20,000 r e b m 15,000 u N 10,000 5,000 0 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Figure 1 Counts of three common, resident antelope species in WazaY eNationalar Park, western kob (Kobus kob kob), topi (Damalis- cus korrigum), and roan (Hippotragus equinus) since 1962 to present. Data from Scholte et al. (2007), Bobo Kadiri et al. (1998) and Omondi et al. (2007). 30,000 Roan 25,000 Western kob Topi 20,000 r e b m 15,000 u N 10,000 5,000 0 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year Factors affecting Home range, Movement and Diet in lions 3 drastic decrease in herbivore numbers was caused by a body weight of about 181 kg to 227 kg for males the construction of the Maga dam in 1979 (Scholte, and 113 kg to 136 kg for females, this means that lions Saleh & Serge, 2007). This dam prevented inunda- feed normally on large prey (Schaller, 1972). The size tion from the Logone river east of the park with a of prey lions are capable of killing is dependent on the dramatic impact on perennial vegetation, livestock, group size of the lion. When hunting alone, lions kill fisheries and birdlife in the downstream area of this smaller prey and when hunting in a group they kill river (Bauer, 2003; Scholte et al., 2007; Loth, 2007). larger prey (Schaller, 1972). Reversibly group size is Other factors inducing the rapid reduction of the an- smaller in areas with lower prey densities (Bauer, De telope species were rinderpest transmitted from live- Iongh & Di Silvestre, 2003). Small prey is killed in- stock because of an increase in livestock-antelope cidentally or out of necessity and animals weighing contact. Poaching was not seen as factor contributing more than 1000 kg are said to be relatively safe from to the decrease (Scholte et al., 2007). In the 1990s lion predation (Schaller, 1972). In an analysis of 32 and the beginning of 2000s populations of kob and different studies about lion diet Hayward & Kerley topi recovered little possibly by the (re)flooding of (2005) showed that lions prefer prey species within the floodplain (Scholte, 2007). In the 2000s this re- a weight range of 190-550 kg. The most preferred covery came drastically to an end and populations of weight was 350 kg, with gemsbok, buffalo, wilde- kob, roan and topi decreased again, with historic low beest, giraffe and zebra as favorite prey species. numbers of kob (Figure 1). Reason for this decrease Lions prefer prey species in a certain weight is an explosive increase in illegal activities inside the class, but what they actually eat is another thing. Be- park due to a breakdown of management (Tumenta et side prey preference many factors influence what a al., in press). lion eats. Most important are the characteristics of To get an idea of the lion-livestock conflict in WNP, the prey population: prey size, availability and den- it is important to gather ecological data of the lions. sity and scavenging (Schaller, 1972). Despite prefer- In this study we focus on two important factors that ences species that are not available can’t simply be might influence the lion-livestock conflict: sex and hunted. Ratios of prey occurrence in the environment habitat type.