Fashionable Rebellion: Jacobite Women’s Objects of the Forty-Five by Finlay MacKenzie From the early battle of Prestonpans to the battle of Falkirk Muir, and most notably the climactic battle of Culloden, the battles of the Jacobite rising of 1745 have been commemorated, and the Jacobites themselves have been equated with the soldiers who fought on behalf of the exiled Stuarts. Whilst these battles were undoubtedly significant, they punctuated the ongoing social and political conflicts which occurred continuously throughout the Forty-Five. Rather than taking place on the battlefield, these conflicts were carried out in the social sphere of the eighteenth century, at public gatherings and in the private areas of the home. As expressing Jacobite ideology was a treasonous offence in Britain, supporters of the Stuarts turned to symbolism to communicate their beliefs. They decorated their possessions with coded imagery and texts, representing complex ideas to themselves or other Jacobites whilst hiding their messages from their political opponents. Central to this ideological, object-based war were Jacobite women, whose enthusiasm for the cause established a large market for Jacobite objects catered specifically to their needs and interests. Women’s participation in Jacobitism was frequently devalued and trivialised by authorities and other supporters of the Hanoverians, who considered them victims of their preoccupation with fashion, attracted to the Jacobite cause by its popularity and the romanticism of Prince Charles. However, the objects owned and used by Jacobite women create a markedly different image – one of a highly informed and active group of Stuart supporters who used their reputation for romanticism to enjoy freedom of political expression and emphasise their commitment to rebellion with as much conviction as Jacobite men. The involvement of women in British politics was well-established by the mid-eighteenth century. The society of the time was intensely interested in the activities of parliament, and as women were excluded from the official institutions of politics, they instead relied upon their social influence to support various politicians, parties, and causes. Whilst upper-class women were able to directly involve themselves in politics through their social connections, furthering their own aims or those of their families, women of all classes signed petitions, campaigned and demonstrated for political causes, and published political books and pamphlets. This frenzy of political activity co-existed with the conception of women as lacking a capacity for politics, and as such they were often able to exert influence where men could not. By the time of the Forty-Five, women were well- placed to subtly promote the treasonous political position of Jacobitism whilst suffering few consequences for their transgressions. Like other politically-minded women of the period, Jacobite women used their possessions to display their loyalty to their chosen cause, and a significant proportion of Jacobite objects were created and distributed for or by these women. Regardless of whether they were lower-, middle-, or upper-class, alone or amongst company, or expressing their beliefs covertly or openly, Jacobite women relied upon such objects to present themselves fashionably even as they rebelled against the Hanoverians. Fashion? For eighteenth-century women of all classes, the possession of fashionable and luxury objects demonstrated their refinement and taste, and their use of these objects gave them an opportunity to display both their awareness of the latest trends and their individuality. It is thus unsurprising that many women combined their interest in politics with their interest in fashion to adorn themselves in ways which reflected their beliefs, choosing ribbons or rosettes in colours which represented their favoured political parties. Jacobite women were no exception to this, as they owned, wore and used their objects with both fashion and politics in mind. During the Forty-Five, in those cities and towns which were occupied by the Jacobite army, the excitement and anticipation incited by the army’s success generated their own set of trends which Jacobite women were eager to take advantage of in order to proclaim their loyalty to the cause. Many women purchased or made sashes and dresses in tartan, reflecting the uniform of the Jacobite army, or cockades and dresses in white, referencing the white rose, a symbol of the Stuarts. To publicly declare their enthusiasm for the cause, Jacobite women wore these symbolic fashion items to parades, processions, and social occasions, or – for the lucky few – opportunities to meet Prince Charles. Fig. 1. Fragment of a dress said to have been worn by a Mrs Maxwell of Kirkconnell to the Holyrood ball in Edinburgh, 1745. The fragment is embroidered with a rose, rosebud, thistles, and oak leaves with acorns (Battle of Falkirk Muir Visitor Centre). Some women even displayed their Jacobite loyalty at such occasions through more ornate and detailed accessories and dresses. This fabric fragment (Fig. 1) is thought to be from a dress worn by a Mrs Maxwell of Kirkconnell to the Holyrood ball in late 1745, which celebrated the Jacobite victory at Prestonpans and the army’s occupation of the city of Edinburgh. Even in this small fragment of her dress, Mrs Maxwell’s deliberate and strategic choices of Jacobite symbolism are clear. The embroidery centres around a rose, a common symbol of the Stuart monarchs, with a rosebud sprouting from it to represent the Stuart princes, Charles and Henry. Acorns and oak leaves, too, symbolise the Stuarts, and would have reminded Jacobites of the Boscobel oak, in which the Stuart king Charles II sheltered during the English Civil War. The thistle behind the rose represents Scotland, reflecting both the Stuarts’ Scottish origins and the importance of Scottish support. Although the rest of Mrs Maxwell’s dress is now left to the imagination, this small piece shows the care she must have taken in crafting an outfit rich in symbolism, and her understanding of the variety of visual imagery used to communicate Jacobite beliefs. Fig. 2. Fan produced for the Holyrood Ball in Edinburgh, 1745. The design on the leaf is attributed to Robert Strange, 1745, and depicts Prince Charles surrounded by classical gods. Prince Charles, Mars, and Minerva stand in the centre, with Venus and Cupid to the left, Britannia to the far left, Zeus striking down Envy and Discord to the right, and the Hanoverians fleeing to the far right. The sticks depict a classical-style scene (Battle of Falkirk Muir Visitor Centre). Folding fans, too, were used by women to show their loyalty to Jacobitism, and these fans (Figs. 2 and 3) give a further suggestion of the rich Jacobite imagery and symbolism which women displayed at the Holyrood ball. Introduced from Asia into Europe in the fifteenth century, fans became relatively affordable and highly fashionable in the 1720s. By the 1740s, their large leaves were often painted with images commenting on politics or social issues, enabling women to express their ideas through fashion. Jacobite designers took advantage of this trend to create fans which displayed treasonous pro-Stuart images, such as these from the Holyrood ball. Their unpainted backs would have allowed their users to hide their more politically dangerous painted fronts, revealing these fans’ true message only when amongst sympathetic company. The Holyrood ball fans were not created for individuals, but commissioned by Jacobite leaders to be distributed as gifts to the women who attended the event. Their varying quality – illustrated by these two examples, which differ both in the clarity of the print and the number and style of the sticks – suggest that multiple fanmakers in Edinburgh were employed to make them, perhaps under significant pressure as Jacobite leaders hurried to have enough fans produced in time for the ball. The effort to provide a gift for the women in attendance at the ball shows the value Jacobite leaders placed on women’s support during the Forty- Five, and their eagerness to earn their loyalty. Fig. 3. Fan produced for the Holyrood Ball in Edinburgh, 1745. The design on the leaf is attributed to Robert Strange, 1745, and depicts Prince Charles surrounded by classical gods. Prince Charles, Mars, and Minerva stand in the centre, with Venus and Cupid to the left, Britannia to the far left, Zeus striking down Envy and Discord to the right, and the Hanoverians fleeing to the far right. The sticks are decorated with openwork and floral designs (Battle of Falkirk Muir Visitor Centre). The imagery painted on the leaf of the Holyrood ball fans suggests that the women who received them were expected to understand not only Jacobite imagery, but the Classical tradition. Whilst the Jacobites commonly used allusions to Greek and Roman mythology to represent their beliefs, these fans are relatively unique in their focus on female rather than male figures. The most prominent male figure on these fans is Prince Charles himself, crowned with laurel and standing below the star said to have appeared on the occasion of his birth. Although he is accompanied by Mars, god of violent warfare, and assisted by Zeus striking down Envy and Discord to cause the Hanoverians to flee, the female figures on these fans occupy equally if not more prominent roles. Minerva, goddess of wisdom and warfare, stands in front of Mars, who gestures to her alongside Prince Charles, as if inviting the fans’ owners to consider the role of women in promoting the Jacobite cause. Fame and Venus also play active roles, with Fame crowning Prince Charles and Venus pointing to the burning hearts which show the Jacobites’ love for the Stuarts. Even the Hanoverian symbol of Britannia, sitting dejected to the far left, is offered an olive branch by a dove. Not all of the women who attended the Holyrood ball would have been committed Jacobites, instead attending out of curiosity or having been invited with the aim of winning their support.