University of Alberta Translating the Hijra: The Symbolic Reconstruction of the British Empire in India. by Shane Patrick Gannon A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Sociology ©Shane Patrick Gannon Fall 2009 Edmonton, Alberta Permission is hereby granted to the University of Alberta Libraries to reproduce single copies of this thesis and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only. Where the thesis is converted to, or otherwise made available in digital form, the University of Alberta will advise potential users of the thesis of these terms. The author reserves all other publication and other rights in association with the copyright in the thesis and, except as herein before provided, neither the thesis nor any substantial portion thereof may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatsoever without the author's prior written permission. Examining Committee Sourayan Mookerjea, Sociology (Co-supervisor) Guy Thompson, History and Classics (Co-supervisor) Jane Samson, History and Classics Michael Haan, Sociology Sikata Banerjee, Women‟s Studies, University of Victoria i Abstract This dissertation examines the relationships between citizenship and sexuality and gender in imperial formations, through an archaeology/genealogy of the subject position of those classified as the hijra. Combining Lacan‟s symbolic order with Foucault‟s historic a priori in order to understand empire, this project examines two main questions: how were sexuality and gender -- notably manifest in the subject position of the hijra -- used as forms of political control in colonial India; and how transformations in empire were produced through changing representations of the hijra. Consequently, the hijra represent a key point -- or, in the words of Lacan, le point de capiton -- in the anchoring of a field of meaning that enabled colonial governance in both a diachronic and synchronic fashion; in other words, the figure of the hijra was translated by the colonial writers in such a way as to facilitate the creation of an ideology that privileged British understandings of sexuality and masculinity, not to mention civility, modernity, and, to a degree, religiosity, establishing British authority in the region. This project consists of a textual analysis of nineteenth-century British documents and writings, especially historical records, such as ethnographies, translations, census information, official reports, intra-government communications, and legal documents from the late eighteenth through early twentieth centuries, with a focus on the nineteenth. Through an examination of these sources, this dissertation explores how this group was translated by the colonial authorities; that is, it queries the conditions under which they were ii represented as a group that was constituted by those who were defined by sexual and gendered characteristics -- eunuchs, hermaphrodites, and impotent men. iii Acknowledgements Writing a dissertation of this nature is not a project that can be completed by a solitary individual. Yet, the very notion of authorship assumes a reification of the relations that goes into the production of this type of work. In order to not fall into such a trap, I must give credit to the other authors of this project. I must thank the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council and the Shastri Indo- Canadian Institute; without their monetary assistance, I would not have been able to undertake an endeavour of this magnitude. In addition, the British Library, the National Archives of India, and the Pune and Mumbai Archives all were generous in providing not only access to invaluable sources, but helped me navigate some very difficult terrains. I had the opportunity to work with two amazing individuals as co- supervisors: Drs. Sourayan Mookerjea and Guy Thompson. Sourayan pushed me in directions that I had not originally considered, and was invaluable in moulding my project. Guy served as a mentor to me; without his support, I am certain that I would have succumbed to the multiple and ubiquitous nom-academic pressures. To both of them, I am genuinely grateful. In addition, I had the pleasure of working with Jane Samson, who I am also indebted; I thank her for all of her insights, humanity, and intellect. I was quite fortunate to have several other academic influences during the completion of my doctoral degree. Notably, I want to give a heart-felt „thank you‟ to both Sharon Rosenberg and Doug Aoki. Both of these amazing pedagogues inspired me in ways that only those who refuse to decouple theory and teaching could, bringing to life that which I was always taught was dead. Yet, partially because of the collegial atmosphere in the Sociology Department at the University of Alberta, I am grateful to many others: Sara Dorow, for her willingness to academically engage with even the most awkward of students; Michael Haan, for both his eagerness to help out and his invaluable friendship; Amy Kaler, for her thoughful considerations; and Harvey Krahn, for his wisdom and guidance. iv Indeed, without the support of my friends in graduate school, this process would have surely killed me. Dale Ballucci, a dear colleague who kept it „real‟, was an invaluable source of support. Melanie Beres, who was always up for academic discussion when others were not, was always a good friend. One of my biggest supporters and dearest friends, Kristin Lozanski, served as the keystone for both my academic and personal work; if it were not for her, I would not have succeeded in this endeavour. Kim Mair, with whom I enjoyed many drinks over discussions of Empire and all things representational, was a tower of intellect and, without whom, this dissertation could not have been completed. To one of my closest friends, Irene Shankar, I owe far more than any of these words could convey. Finally, Ellen Whiteman, with whom I was able to be frank, always pushed and pulled my thinking into different directions; she is more than a colleague, but is a good friend. I owe all of these people my sincere thanks. Yet, without my partner, Rupa Bhattacherjee, all of the help in the world could not have helped me achieve this ambitious goal. To her, I owe the biggest thanks possible. v Table of Contents Examining Committee ....................................................................................................... i Abstract .............................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... iv Chapter One -- Introduction ............................................................................................ 4 The Desire to Know ........................................................................................ 7 Project Summary ................................................................................................. 9 Archaeology and Genealogy ......................................................................... 12 Historical Context ......................................................................................... 16 Chapter Overview ............................................................................................. 19 Chapter Two -- Theoretical Considerations/Implications .......................................... 24 Empire ............................................................................................................... 26 Theorising Empire ........................................................................................ 27 Discursive Architecture ................................................................................ 43 The Colonial Nation-State and Empire ......................................................... 55 Quilting Empire ................................................................................................ 67 Cryptocrystalline Orientalism ....................................................................... 71 Ideology of Oriental Rule ............................................................................. 76 Suturing Regimes of the Sexual Body .......................................................... 78 Masculinity and Citizenship ......................................................................... 79 The Moral Aesthetic ..................................................................................... 81 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 85 Chapter Three: Relations to the Subject -- The Hijra and the Academic Project .............................................................................................................................. 87 The Hijra -- Contemporary and (Im)Possible Representations ......................... 89 Historiographical Considerations.................................................................... 107 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 115 Chapter Four -- Colonial Representations ................................................................. 116 Knowledge and Power in Nineteenth-Century Colonial India ....................... 117 British Representations of the Hijra ..............................................................