Aspects of Orientalism in Dante by Leila Anna Ouji A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Italian Studies University of Toronto © Copyright by Leila Anna Ouji 2015 Aspects of Orientalism in Dante Leila Anna Ouji Doctor of Philosophy Department of Italian Studies University of Toronto 2015 Abstract Dante Alighieri’s references to the Islamic world are analyzed in order to determine how he perceived the Muslim Other through his medieval Christian lens, and how this shaped both his religious conception of salvation, as well as his political dream for a universal monarchy. Edward Said’s Orientalism acts as a foundational theory guiding this study, in conjunction with Hans-Robert Jauss’ Reception Theory, serving to determine how Dante’s perception of the Islamic world was shaped through the subjective study of the Orient which preceded him, as well as his own politically and religiously divided milieu. While Dante’s depictions of the Islamic prophets, Mohammad and Ali, give the initial impression that the poet was vehemently anti- Islam, the analysis of his other references to the Muslims and later, to other non-Christians, reveal that his views on the Other are far more complex and not necessarily negative. Although Dante does denigrate those individuals whose actions initiated schism, the poet’s condemnation is not limited by religious or political ascriptions, nor does he condemn those who followed the teachings of schismatic leaders, marking him as a unique figure amongst many of his contemporaries. Dante’s views on the Crusades and the conflict between Church and State are also highlighted for the significant impact that these aspects had on Dante’s desire for a universal monarchy. Through his inclusion of many references – both subtle and overt – primarily to the Islamic world, while also to the Jews and other non-Christians, Dante raises complex questions ii about the possibility of salvation beyond Christianity and religious supersessionism, applying these questions to his political vision of a stable and united universal monarchy and the threat that otherness poses to this ideal. iii Acknowledgments The research and writing of this thesis was a long and, at times, arduous process which would not have been possible without the endless support and encouragement from those who propelled me forward. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my doctoral supervisor, Domenico Pietropaolo, for his receptiveness to my ideas, his thought-provoking input, and his overall guidance throughout the years. I may have given up long ago without the steadfast support of my five dearest friends. I thank them for believing that I could make it out of the selva oscura successfully. To my husband, Nickolaos, whose willingness to listen, supportive gestures and words, and overall love were what brought me to the finish line. Thank you for cheering me on. And finally, to my parents, Karim and Giuseppina, who introduced me to the concept of religious pluralism and to the interconnectedness between Christianity and Islam through their own union, I thank them for always answering my questions and encouraging my curiosity about faith, justice, and morality. iv Table of Contents Contents Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ v Preface ........................................................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1 Medieval Orientalism: Theory and Method ................................................................... 1 1 Introduction to Said’s Orientalism ............................................................................................. 5 2 Medieval Orientalism ............................................................................................................... 10 3 Jauss’ Reception Theory .......................................................................................................... 32 Chapter 2 Dante’s Perception of Islam ......................................................................................... 37 1 Dante and the Qur’an ............................................................................................................... 39 2 Dante and Brunetto Latini ........................................................................................................ 41 3 Dante and Riccoldo da Monte Croce ....................................................................................... 43 4 Dante and Cangrande della Scala ............................................................................................. 45 5 Dante’s Fleeting References to the Muslim World .................................................................. 47 6 Dante and the Virtuous Muslims .............................................................................................. 52 7 Dante and the Headship of Islam ............................................................................................. 59 7.1 The contrapasso ................................................................................................................ 59 7.2 Schism versus Heresy ....................................................................................................... 66 7.3 Mohammad as Arius ......................................................................................................... 70 7.4 Mohammad as Simon Magus ............................................................................................ 74 Chapter 3 Florence, the Crusades and Salvation Through the Eyes of Dante .............................. 79 1 Dante’s Ambivalent Relationship with His Patria .................................................................. 80 2 Dante and the Crusades ............................................................................................................ 85 v 3 Dante’s Conception of Divine Justice and Salvation ............................................................. 102 Chapter 4 The Jews as Precursors to Concepts of Islamic Otherness ......................................... 115 1 Medieval Perceptions of the Jews and the Link to Islam: A Historical Background ............ 117 1.1 Anti-Semitic Beginnings in Europe ................................................................................ 117 1.2 The Apocalypse, the Antichrist and the Demonic Jew ................................................... 126 1.3 The Jews as Sorcerers, Cannibals and Desecrators of the Sacred .................................. 130 1.4 The Jewish Intelligentsia in Medieval Europe ................................................................ 132 2 Dante’s Perception and Depiction of the Jews ....................................................................... 137 2.1 Giudecca: Home of the Jews? ......................................................................................... 138 2.2 The Jews Linked to Spiritual Hunger? ............................................................................ 145 2.3 The Jews Likened to Lot’s Wife? ................................................................................... 149 2.4 The Condemned Jewish High Priests: Caiaphas and Annas ........................................... 154 2.5 The Ambiguous Laughing Jew ....................................................................................... 157 3 Can the Jews be Saved? What Does This Say About Islam? ................................................. 162 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 173 Bibliography of Works Cited ...................................................................................................... 176 vi Preface The concept of the Other, especially in religious terms, is an inevitable part of our modern discourse as the inherent human need for self-definition through contrast continues to shape our perception of those we deem different from ourselves. As a centuries-old preoccupation, this inherited notion of otherness reached particular prominence during the Middle Ages, as Christendom attempted to reaffirm its supremacy over the overwhelming threat of Islam. Amidst the general casting of the Orient as a place steeped in sin, Dante Alighieri’s references to the Muslims and other non-Christians highlight him as a unique figure amongst his contemporaries, willing to raise questions on religious supremacy and the possibility of salvation beyond Christian confines. The original interest in and study of aspects of Islam in Dante’s Commedia was largely generated through the work of Miguel Asin Palacios in his controversial book La Escatología musulmana en la Divina Comedia published in 1919,1 wherein he sought to prove that Dante drew from Islamic sources in his design of the cosmology of the Commedia. While the focus of my thesis does not directly coincide with that of Asin Palacios, the propelling force of it does, in that my aim is to shed light on how what Dante knew about Islam formed his perception of the Islamic Other, and how these perceptions distinguish Dante as a unique figure of his time. Moreover, Palacios’ theory that Dante significantly drew from and was inspired